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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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THE OLIVE 



ITS CULTURE 



IN THEORY AND PRACTICE 



BY ARTHUR TAPPAN M ARVIN 

(OF SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA.) 




PAYOT, UPHAM & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS AND BOOKSELLERS 

18 88 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by 
PAYOT, UPHAM & CO. 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



Press of 
Commercial Publishing Co. 
34 California Street. 



(#ntroc|ue£ory 



Quito Olive and Vine Farm, 
Santa Clara Co, Cal, July 30, 1888. 

Ellwood Cooper, Esq, 

Santa Barbara, 

Dear Sir : — Will you kindly permit me to most respectfully 
dedicate to you, as the acknowledged Father of American Olive 
Culture in California, this little work ? 

I do so with no design of covering its defects or inaccuracies 
(and many such will doubtless be found) with the mantle of your 
name. 

It is a contribution to the local literature on the subject, and 
must stand on its own merits, if any it has, and take its chance of 
criticism. 

My attention was first attracted to the olive when my friend 
Mr. Edward E. Goodrich purchased the Quito Olive Farm in De- 
cember 1882, and began its reform and development under your 
kind advice and suggestion. 



6 THE OLIVE. 

During his absence in Europe, covering a period of four years, 
I took a general direction of the place and my interest in the noble 
tree has ever increased, as my acquaintance with it grew more in- 
timate, although I have no investment in orchard or nursery. My 
only object in issuing this treatise is to add my mite to the general 
fund of information on this most important subject. 

After reading your pamphlet and your numerous contribu- 
tions to the transient agricultural literature of the State, my ac- 
quaintance with the Spanish language led me to study the writers 
in that tongue, and besides some short articles in English (Califor- 
nian and Australian) I have had the advantage, through the kind- 
ness of my friend in translating, of the valuable information 
contained in the monograph of Professor Caruso of Pisa, the work 
of Signor Guilio Cappi, and the Manual of Signor Raffaello Pecori 
of Florence, the leading olive nurseryman of Italy. 

This last work is as yet unpublished, but Signor Pecori has 
been so kind as to furnish Mr. Goodrich with a copy of his manu- 
script and accord permission to make use of it in the preparation 
of this work. 

Climate and race differences will doubtless lead our culture to 
vary widely from the European, but the experience of so many 
centuries will hardly fail to be of some value to the American olive 
farmer. 

I give below the authors consulted, and should add that I 
have gained many valuable practical ideas from the late exper- 
ienced and courteous foreman of the Quito Farm, Signor Ludovico 
Gaddi, a native of the Province of Lucca and one, as the Italians 
say, "born under the olive." 

Let us hope that this tree may soon fill the important place in 



THE OLIVE. 



7 



our California fruit culture which for so many centuries it has oc- 
cupied in that of Asia, Europe and Africa. It seems probable to- 
day that this result will be attained, and it will be due to none so 
much as to yourself. 

I am, dear sir, 

Yours very respectfully, 

ARTHUR TAPPAN MARVIN. 



Monograph on the Olive, 1883, by G. Caruso, Prof, of Agriculture of the Koyal Univer- 
sity of Pisa. 

Manual op Olive Culture, 1888, by Signor Eaffaello Pecori, Nurseryman, Via dei Ser- 

ragli, No. 64, Florence, Italy. 
The Cultivation of the Olive, 1875, by Signor Guilio Cappi. 

Treatise on the Olive in Spain and Mode op Improving it, 1870, by Sr. Don Jose 

de Hidalgo Tablada, Proprietor. 
The Art op Cultivating the Olive, 1840, by Sr. Don Celedonio Eojo Payo Vincente. 
The Olive, its Culture and Products, 1878, by William R. Boothby, Esq. 
Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils, Artificial Butter and Lubricants, 1888, 

by William R. Brannt, Esq. 
A Treatise on Olive Culture, 1882, by Ellwood Cooper, Esq. 
Prima Arborum, a Treatise on Oil Making, 1887, by Messrs. Samuel Bae & Co. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 



The Olive. 



CHAPTER II. 



Species 



CHAPTER III. 



Climate . 



20 



36 



CHAPTER IV. 



Soil. 



Fertilization 



CHAPTER V. 
CHAPTER VI. 



53 



Multiplication of the Olive 59 

CHAPTER VII. 

Consociation 73 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Preparation of Ground 78 

CHAPTER IX. 

Pruning 85 

CHAPTER X. 

Pests 1 00 

CHAPTER XI. 

Harvest and Product 128 

CHAPTER XII. 

Extraction, Clarification and Storage of the Oii- 137 



Plate I Page 16 Plate IX Page 80 



II. 
III. 
IV. 
V. 
VI. 
VII. 
VIII. 



24 
32 
40 
48 
56 
64 
72 



X. 
XL 
" XII. 
" XIII. 
" XIV. 
" XV. 
" XVI. 



88 
104 
112 
120 
128 
136 
144 



CHAPTER I. 

"The trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over them; and they said unto the 
olive tree, Reign thou over us." Judges IX : 8. 

The history of the olive is obscure and controverted and is lost in 
the night of centuries. Its home seems to have been in Southern 
Central Asia, where it was first domesticated and improved by the 
Semitic races of that country. Monuments and history show that 
the wild olive existed on the Grecian coasts of Asia Minor, in the 
Islands and in Greece itself. Probably the Greeks received its cul- 
ture from the Semitics. But when, who can tell? In Homer's time, 
the ninth century, B. C, frequent mention is made of the olive, but 
always as a foreign importation, which was used entirely for 
anointing the body and not for food or light. It seems as if in later 
parts of Homer we see indications of the beginning of its culture, 
probably on the Ionic coasts and islands, not on the main land. 
Samos means "planted with olives." As for Miletus and Chios we 
have evidence of olives from the time of Talete, 639 to 546 B. C. 

The Egyptian bas reliefs show us how that people extracted oil 
from the olive before the invention of the stone for crushin°; the 
berries. These depict the pressing of sacks of olives to extract the 
oil and then washing with water till only the clean stones remain. 

A certain Aristeo is said to have been the fi rst to cultivate the tree 
in Sicily and to him is attributed the invention of the crushing stone. 

Herodotus tells us that Athens was the seat of olive cultivation in 
Greece. At the beginning of the sixth century B. C, olive culture 
is mentioned in the laws of Solon. 



2 



10 



THE OLIVE 



The olive was probably carried by Grecian colonists into Italy, 
Sardinia, Sicily and Gaul, although it is possible that the Pheni- 
cians anticipated them. According to Pliny, in the time of Tar- 
quinius Prisons, 615 B. C, there were no olives in Italy, but five 
hundred years later Italy was able to export oil to the provinces. 
The Greeks, those ministers to luxury, taught the Komans its use 
in the gymnasium, and Pliny complains that the directors of those 
institutions in Pome had sold the scrapings of the citizens exercis- 
ing there for sixty thousand sesterces. Ancient medicine was 
certainly nasty if nothing else. These scrapings of oil and sweat of 
athletes were supposed to be peculiarly endowed with curative prop- 
erties and were largely used in plasters and emollients. 

Cato thought that the more bitter the olive the better the oil, 
but at that time the olive in greatest favor in Italy was the 
Licinian which was the one olive the birds would never touch. 
This is in all probability the Italian variety known as the Leccino to- 
day. 

The names of places in Palestine speak a language from which 
one learns the extensiveness and beauty of the Hebrew olive planta- 
tions. The Mount of Olives situated some three thousand jjaces from 
the temple, on the east side of Jerusalem, was among the places 
best cultivated. On its slopes was the plantation called Gethse- 
mane (that is Gath-Semen which means the " oil press ") because 
of the olives with which it was covered and those of the mountain 
above where they pressed out and made oil in great abundance. 

The Bible gives us various glimpses of the mode of treatment in 
harvesting and gathering the olive in Palestine. 

When thou beatest thine olive tree thou shalt not go over the boughs again; it shall be 
for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow. Deuteronomy xxiv, 20. 

Yet gleaning grapes shall be left in it, as the shaking of an olive tree, two or three ber- 
ries in the top of the uppermost bough, four or five in the outmost fruitful branches thereof. 

ISAIAH XVII. 0. 

Best in the seventh year. In like manner thou shalt deal with thy vineyard and with thy 
olive yard. exodus xxiii, 11. 



THE OLIVE 



11 



Thou shalt have olive trees throughout all thy coasts, but thou shalt not anoint thyself 
•with the oil ; for thine olive shall cast his fruit. Deuteronomy xxvnr, 40. 

And over the olive trees and the sycamore trees that were in the low plains was Baal-hanari 
the Gederite, and over the cellars of oil was Joash. i Chronicles xxvii, 28. 

The Lord called thy name a green olive tree, fair and of goodly fruit; with the noise of 
great tumult he hath kindled fire upon it and the branches of it are broken. 

Jeremiah xi, 16. 

And I heard a voice in the midst of the four beasts say, A measure of wheat for a penny 
and three measures of barley for a penny, and see thou hurt not the oil and the Avine. 

Revelation vi, 6. 

Here where plagues were sent forth broadcast they were first laid 
under an injunction not to harm the oil and the Avine. Does it not 
then seem that the land of the olive and the wine is an especially 
favored one? These Biblical references are interesting for their 
antiquity and the view they give us of the management of the olive 
at that remote period. The manner of harvesting, of oil making 
by treading the berries, of planting on fertile plains where syca- 
mores grow, of seeking the wild olives on the mountains Avhere the 
birds had scattered the seeds, of the danger of the olive from fire, 
all this is repeated to-day in the European home of the olive. 
The oil olive, being essentially a product of civilization, no longer 
flourishes in Palestine; without man's fostering care it soon reverts 
to its wild state and ceases to fruit, and finally disappears altogether. 

The ancients regarded the olive with reverence and awe. The 
ease with which it sprang into renewed life, the vitality it possessed, 
and the hoary age it attained, all led them to endow it with a divine 
origin. 

The Greeks dedicated it to Minerva, and with evergreen olive 
leaves bound the brows of brave captains and citizens most marked 
for virtue and wisdom. 

The Romans held the olive in a much greater esteem than their 
simple appreciation of the oil, and mingled the leaves in the triumphal 
crowns of the defenders of the country. 

Professor Caruso says : 

" The olive, because of the moderate care which it requires and 
the copiousness and value of its product, may be considered as a 



12 



THE OLIVE 



Providential tree." He further says that but for the olive a great 
part of the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and its dependencies, 
European, Asiatic and African, which are now covered with its 
perennial verdure and form the source of the wealth of the people 
of that region, would be sterile and desert. Few trees can contend 
with it for the title of primate, and Columella was well advised in 
proclaiming it the best of his times. 

The olive is limited in its possible extension, but still the Italian 
has already looked forward with dread to its cultivation in Australia, 
and now California seems likely to prove a formidable rival. 
But his fears would seem to be unfounded, as the only effect of 
a supply of pure olive oil in the United States from California, is 
likely to be a greatly increased demand for the pure article, wheth- 
er it comes from abroad or at home. 

The olive has advantages, however, over most other oil producing 
trees, such as the walnut, sesame, peanut, linseed, rapeseed, castor oil, 
and poppy, which, as a rule, demand a rich soil and minute care. 
Consequently, where the olive prospers it is not worth while to cul- 
tivate other trees or plants which produce oil. 

The ancients used oil for food, for light, and for anointing the 
body. It grew to be a maxim in the latter days of the Roman Em- 
pire that life was prolonged by oil without, and honey within. 

Modern uses are more numerous; for food, for light, for soap, in 
dyeing, in perfumery, in pharmacies, in manufacture of cloths and 
for machine oil, especially in cold countries. 

The economic future of olive culture seems most promising, since 
its uses increase steadily, while for food alone the demand is ever 
greater than the supply, as is proved by the enormous amount of 
adulterated oil openly sold in all the markets of the world. 

THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF OLIVE OIL. 

Italy comes first as an oil producing country as her export is the 
largest. This kingdom has yielded in oil as follows, viz : 



THE OLIVE 13 

Gallons. 

1880 86,000,000 

1881 34,600,000 

1882 56,800,000 

1883 ..< 41,300,000 

1884 46,800,000 

1885 47,000,000 

1886 . .64,300,000 



which would average about fifty-four million gallons annually. The 
export has been steady for the last ten years at about twenty mil- 
lion gallons. The population is twenty-eight millions. The area 
of the whole kingdom is one hundred and twelve thousand square 
miles, and that devoted to olives is two million two hundred and 
fifty thousand acres. 

For Spain it is much more difficult to reach the truth. The 
population of Spain and Portugal is twenty-two millions, the 
surface area of the two kingdoms is two hundred and thirty-three 
thousand square miles^ more than double that of Italy, and five mil- 
lion acres are given up to olive culture. The very reasonable esti- 
mate of Senor Tablada would give a product of one hundred and 
fifty million gallons of oil for the annual yield of Spain. The ex- 
port is only ten million gallons. The explanation of this is that 
the consumption of oil and olives is very much greater there than 
anywhere else in the world, and also that Spanish oil is made in 
such a slovenly way that the world will not take it, and it must be 
consumed at home. Olives are often piled up in a heap and left to 
rot for six months or a year before being pressed. This suits the 
national taste; they like strong or rancid oil, but it is not a market- 
able product and has to be consumed at home. 

France has a population of thirty-eight millions, an area of two 
hundred and four thousand square miles, of which only three hun- 
dred and seventy-five thousand acres are given up to the cultiva- 
tion of the olive. The annual product of oil is only nine million 
gallons. 



14 



THE OLIVE 



Some of the other Mediterranean countries produce oil, but it is 
entirely consumed at home or exported from one to the other. 
The total jDroduction of oil then is : 

Gallons. 

Italy 54,000,000 

Spain f 150,000,000 

France 9,000,000 

213,000,000 

of which Italy and Spain together furnish thirty million gallons 
only for export. 

The population of Europe is three hundred and thirty-nine mil- 
lions of people, more than enough to consume their own oil. 

It is plain that France is a large importer. Such is the fact. The 
entire Spanish surplus and the hulk of that of Italy finds its way 
into France. Hence the impudence of a French export of olive 
oil ; its own supply being a failing one and insufficient for domestic 
consumption. 

From these figures it is plain that California has little to fear 
from foreign competition. In addition to this France has been 
steadily retrograding as an oil producing country since 1793. In 
the ten years preceding 1876, seventy-five thousand acres in the 
Maritime Alps, abandoned olive cultivation for that of cereals, fruits, 
flowers, the vine and the mulberry, as requiring less care and so 
yielding a better return. 

In Africa also, the cultivation has been generally given up, the 
climate being too humid and the latitude too far south. 

It is quite natural that with the increase of geographical knowl- 
edge new and more favorable regions should be discovered where 
the cultivation of this noble tree may flourish on a greater scale 
than ever. With reason we flatter ourselves that California is such 
a spot. Mr. Goodrich, to whose searching observation we are so 
largely indebted, notices a marked difference in point of size between 



THE olivj: 



15 



the Italian and Californian trees of a given age. A ten year old 
tree in California is much larger in every way than its Italian 
counterpart. Hence, as was to be expected, its production is also 

greater. 

Our experience with the olive is as yet largely experimental. 
But we cannot hope to make a high grade of oil unless we first 
plant in favorable situations olives of superior qualifications as oil 
producers. It will be the endeavor of the writer to indicate in the 
following chapter which these varieties are, together with their 
characteristics. 

The age of the olive tree is known to be very great, It may be 
said that well cared for trees will live three hundred years. From 
the first to the twelfth is the period of its infancy, from the thir- 
teenth to the thirtieth its youth, from the thirty-first to the fiftieth 
a period of growth, and from the fifty-first to the three hundredth 
the possible period of its life. 

Its vitality is really wonderful, and it seems as though it would 
actually live forever were it not for the attacks of its numerous and 
persistent enemies, who bore holes in its bark, eat out its heart, kill 
its branches and feed on its leaves and fruit; but so great is its hold 
on life that after all this has occurred, if the dead and dying tree 
be cut down close to the ground, its vigorous root will give birth to 
still another tree. It varies greatly in size. In Spain, Nijar, Al- 
meria, one was seen that four feet from the ground measured nine 
feet nine inches in circumference, and there are well authenticated 
reports of trees attaining even a larger growth, but of course it is 
superfluous to say that such a size is abnormal. 

What return may we expect from an olive plantation? This is 
a question that is often asked and one of vital interest. 

In Spain olives will average, taking the country over, thirty-two 
trees to the acre, and in estimating for oil it is customary to reckon 
every six trees as good for four gallons of oil. Here we may safely 
calculate on our trees, averaging one year with another, a gallon of 



16 



THE OLIVE 



oil per tree, and hope for as much more as we please. Also olive 
culture in Spain is susceptible of improvement. The yield could 
be much increased by giving more care and attention to the or- 
chards. Their methods are very crude and the jDeople very poor. 
But their large experience has demonstrated the futility of planting 
too near together. This is the crying sin of the California fruit 
grower. In this way heretofore unheard of pests are evolved, trees 
are rendered sickly and stunted, and promising orchards become 
unprofitable. The olive is least able to bear the effects of over-, 
crowding; sunlight and ventilation are absolute necessities to it. 
Fifty good trees to an acre is a better investment than a hundred 
r)Oor ones. As the olive is so long in maturing, it is customary to 
utilize the space between the young trees by growing grapes and 
the short lived fruits, such as prunes and peaches, to give way 
finally to the mature tree. 

On purchasing the Quito Farm the trees were found to be injur- 
ing each other by their proximity, (sixteen and one half feet) and 
every other one was taken out, deprived of all its branches and re- 
planted. This was done in the spring of 1883. Those replanted 
trees will this year bear a crop : that is they have been lost to the 
orchard for the past five years, owing to the error of their having 
been planted too near together in the first place. This year 
the trees, by reason of their increased growth, are still too near 
together, and. the process of thinning out will have to be repeated. 
In this case the economy of planting the trees a reasonable distance 
apart in the first instance is quite evident. 

Mr. Ellwood Cooper has told us that the best result he ever ob- 
tained was one bottle of oil from ten pounds and. fifty-six hun- 
dredths of olives, and the poorest a bottle from twelve and a half 
pounds. This is twelve and ten per cent, respectively. The best 
variety among the Mission, the Cornicabra, should give a better 
result than this. The maximum yield of any olive is twenty per 
cent, of oil for weight of berries. From that down to ten. An 



THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE OLIVE. 

PlateI 




Fig 8- 




%.9 





b— 




Fig. 12. 



Fiy.13 



Hg.14. 



Fig. 15 



Fia. 16 



Fig. 1, A branch of the olive in flower, natural 
size, a a Blossom. 

Fig. 2. Inside view of flower, enlarged. 

Fig. 3. Corolla cut and spread out to show the in- 
sertion of the stamens. 

Fig. 4. Flower without the corolla, enlarged. 

Fig. 5. Front view of stamen, enlarged. 

Fig. 6. Rear view of stamen, enlarged. 

Fig. 7. Pistil, enlarged. 

Fig. 8. Pistil cut vertically. 

Fig, 9. The lower portion of bud cut horizon- 
tally, enlarged, 



Fig. 10. 
Fig. 11. 

Fig. 12. 

Fig. 13. 
Fig. 14. 

Fig. 15. 



The berry, natural size. 
The berry cut horizontally.— a Epicarp. 

b Afesocarp. c Endocarp. d Seed. 
The nut stripped of fleshy part, natural 
size. 

Seed, natural size. 

Seed stripped of its external skin, natural 
size. 

Seed stripped of skin cut horizontally, 
natural size. 

Fig. 16. Germ or embrvo split open, natural 
size. 



THE OLIVE 



17 



olive that will not return ten per cent, of its weight in oil had better 
be abandoned for one that will. A large and fully developed tree 
has been known to yield as much as sixteen gallons of oil. 

In Florence, Italy, Mr. Goodrich has found it a matter of in- 
creasing difficulty each year to get pure oil. In fact the manager 
of a large olive grove in the vicinity had the hardihood to tell him 
that he did not believe it possible to procure any there. The out- 
put of cotton seed oil in the United States is half a million 
tons, or seventeen million five hundred thousand gallons. In 
the late Congressional investigation into the Cotton Seed Oil 
Trust, it was developed that t wenty -seven per cent, is exported to be 
used as an adulterant of olive oil. In Italy it is poured over the 
olives in the crusher to thoroughly mix the two oils. " Originally 
cotton-seed oil was used to merely adulterate, which was bad enough, 
but of late it is pressed on the public with greater boldness. 

The British Consul at Leghorn, in his report for 1886, states 
that the Florentine flasks in which pure olive oil was formerly 
shipped to the British market are now sent direct to London 
empty and there filled with cotton seed oil, and he warns the 
public accordingly. The following is from a late work in the 
interest of cotton seed oil : "It is hoped that in time the prejudice 
now existing against cotton seed oil in this country will be overcome 
and our people, like those of Europe, take to cooking their food in 
oil instead of using lard. That there is a growing demand for cot- 
ton seed oil for table use and culinary purposes is evidenced by the 
increased business of merchants who make a specialty of filling fancy 
bottles with cotton seed oil." We are all familiar with the fancy 
bottles and the blatant claim that they contain pure olive oil. 
These so called merchants are engaged in deceiving the public, in 
endeavoring to palm off cotton seed oil for olive oil. Cotton seed 
oil is refined by treatment with alkaline carbonates and caustic al- 
kalies, and this fact is sufficient to condemn it as a food oil. 



IS 



THE OLIVE 



Crude cotton seed oil is a thick fluid of a reddish or dirty yellow 
color, and if left standing will deposit a slimy sediment. For years 
the cotton seed oil refiners encountered very great difficulty in dis- 
posing of this coloring matter, but this impediment is now overcome 
in the following manner. To an iron tank charged with ten tons of 
crude cotton seed oil, is added thirty hundred weight of caustic soda 
lye. Saponification ensues, and the coloring matter is precipitated. 
No argument can convince the impartial mind that an article so 
prepared is fit food for the human stomach. There are many other 
adulterants which are used in unison with cotton seed oil, such as 
sesame, palm nuts, hemp, cupra or sunflower, and a host of others 
of strange origin. It is not safe to say that these supposititious co- 
mestibles are always innocuous. Many an oil retains the subtle 
qualities of the plant which produced it, and it may be that obscure 
maladies which puzzle the doctor are not unfrequently caused by 
the detestable practice of supplying for the genuine article some- 
thing which looks sufficiently like it to mislead, and, it may be, poi- 
son the hapless public. A simple and homely test for the detection 
of adulteration is the heating of oil until it smokes, in some small 
vessel. The smell of olive oil while suggestive of the kitchen and 
cookery is not at all disagreeable, while any counterfeit oil, and es- 
pecially cotton seed oil, is exceedingly offensive to the nostrils. If 
placed in a refrigerator, pure olive oil will remain unchanged, or at 
most throw down a little palmatin, while adulterated oil will thicken 
and congeal. The persistent adulteration of olive oil will bear its legit- 
imate fruit ; the markets where the world has sought its supply here- 
tofore will become discredited, their wares will no longer meet with 
ready sale in the face of free supplies of the pure article from Cali- 
fornia and Australia. 

Gasparin makes some interesting calculations as to the consump- 
tion of oil in France. In Provence a laborer consumes an average 
of nine pounds per annum, and the same ratio holds good in Paris. 



THE OLIVE 



19 



The olive grower of California has sixty-five millions of country- 
men among whom to market his product. . Now if we assume that 
the consumption may reach only one jxmnd per head annually, it 
would require ten million gallons to satisfy the demand for the 
United States alone, or, with an acreage of fifty trees, olive groves 
covering two hundred thousand acres. Our people have yet to 
learn to appreciate the olive. It needs no pushing, it will make its 
way on its merits. It is sufficient to say that the public were wil- 
ling to pay during all last season fifteen dollars a gallon for an 
oil they knew to be pure. But increased production will lower 
the price, and a lower price will stimulate the consumption. 

Olive oil has always been greatly esteemed for the beneficial 
effects derived from its use by the human body. This reputation 
is sustained by the experience of mankind from the beginning of 
history. Of late years it has been discovered that it contains chol- 
esterin, which was only known to exist in the animal body, where 
it forms an important constituent of the gall, the blood corpuscles^ 
and the nerve substance. 



CHAPTEE II. 



" The domestic olive represents the artificial type obtained by means of art. 



Caruso. 



The species of the olive known to exist and the localities where 
found are as follows : 



Oceanic a. 



America. 



Africa. 



Asia. 



{Olea apetala, New Zealand. 
" paniculata, Australia. 
" Europea, 

f Olea floribunda, South America. 
| " Americana; Fla., Ga., Carolina, Va. 
I " Europea; Chili, Peru, Mexico, Cal., La., Miss:, 
Fla,, Arizona, New Mexico. 

Olea crysophylla, Abyssinia, 
laurifolia, " 
verrucosa, Cape of Good Hope, 
verr. (brachybotris) 
capensis, 
foveolata, 
concolor, 
exasperata 
humilis, 

obtusifolia, Ma dagascar. 
lancea, Mauritius. 

Europea; Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Moroc- 
co, Canaries. 

Olea, paucinora, Penang. 

' maritima, Islands, Strait of Malacca, 

k microcarpa, Cochin, China. 

' attenuata, Burmah. 

' dentata, " 

* Lindleyi, Bengal. 

' fragrans, China and Japan. 



THE OLIVE 



21 



Asia. 



Eebope. 



Olea, salicifolia, India, 
" dioica, 

" cuspidata, Afghanistan. 
" compacta, India. 
" acuminata, longifolia, India, 
" roxburghiana, India, eastern. 
u heyneana, 

" glandulifera, Nepaul, India. 
" acuminata, " 

" Europea ; North Asia Minor, Syria, Kurdistan, 
Transcaucasia, North Persia, southern coast of 
Caspian sea, the southeast of Arabian penin- 
sula. 

Olea Europea ; the Mediterranean coast and Portugal 



The Olea Americana is known to the lumbermen of the Carolinas 
and Florida as devil- wood, the grain of the wood being so hard as to 
resist ordinary tools. 

The berry of the Olea Fragrans of China is candied and used 
anions; the Chinese as a sweet, and the flowers to flavor and adulter- 
ate the finer kinds of teas. 

The above enumeration is given chiefly as a curiosity, The spe- 
cies of interest to us is the Olea Europea, this being the only vari- 
ety that has as yet repaid man's care by the increased size and 
weight of its berry. (See Plate I). 

The olive {Olea Europea of Linneus), according to De Candolle, 
belongs to order CXXVII of the Oleaceae, to the tribe III of the 
Oleineae, to the genus VI, Olea, to the species N. 2, Europea, and 
was so called by Linneus to indicate that its home is there, that 
there it is cultivated by choice and has been held in honor from 
remotest antiquity. Some consider the name inappropriate on the 
ground that the olive was brought from Asia, but Caruso holds it 
to be correct because he believes it to be a native of Europe and 
the culture, only, brought from Asia. 

YV e propose now to endeavor to classify the varieties of the Olea 
Europea in a brief and comprehensive manner. 

It is evident that great confusion exists in the nomenclature of 



22 



THE OLIVE 



the olive. The ancient Italian authors enumerated comparatively 
few, from twelve to sixteen, but a modern writer on the subject 
in that country has summed up to over three hundred. 
Each locality where olives have been grown has added a name 
suggested by chance appearance or local prejudice, until a perfect 
chaos exists, utterly meaningless to anyone outside of the narrow 
section where it may be familiar. Take some of the Spanish names 
for instance, such as the " Rabbit's eye," the " Pillow-case the 
" Little round " — these are absurd and convey no significance to 
anyone not living in the province in Spain where they may be 
grown. They are evidently given to impart the idea of the shape 
of different berries and in ignorance of the fact that olives should 
not be classified by the appearance of the fruit, but by the character- 
istics of the tree, for the very sufficient reason that trees of entirely 
different appearance and habits, produce berries very similar in form. 

In this State we are likely, as olive culture progresses, to find great 
difficulty in recognizing what an olive is from its name. We were 
launched with some Spanish varieties which to us have become Mis- 
sion, then a number of French plants became known, and lastly 
the Italian are coming in. The Spanish have never shown the 
world any good oil, although it could undoubtedly be made there. 
The quality is probably somewhat affected by the latitude. 

The French for years have drawn the bulk of their supply of 
oil from Italy and to-day the oil provinces of Northern Italy are 
overrun with French oil buyers, and bad oil cannot be made good, 
although the French are adepts at anything of this kind. If their 
oil has merit it is because it was properly made. Italy is the foun- 
tain head. Italy has long been the source of all the good oil 
we have ever known. Italy has carried the cultivation of this 
tree to greater perfection than any other country on the globe. 
How can we then do better than follow the classification of 
Professor Caruso, Professor of Agriculture of the National Univer- 
sity of Pisa, who at the instance of the Italian Government has 



THE OLIVE 



23 



given to the world a monograph on the olive which is perhaps the 
most profound and exhaustive work on the subject that lias yet 
been written. He separates the olive under three heads as : The 
domesticated olive, the wild olive, the seedling of the cultivated 
olive ; although two only, that of the domesticated olive and 
wild olive, would answer all practical purposes. The domesti- 
cated olive he assumes to have come from the East. The wild 
olive he believes to be the tree indigenous to all the coasts of 
the Mediterranean. The seedling of the cultivated tree is virtu- 
ally a wild olive, as in only one case of a thousand will the seed 
ever reproduce the variety from which it came, but constantly re- 
turns to the wild type. 

The following table will show the olives of Italy, France and 
Spain, grouped in their relative order of merit as oil olives, and it 
is interesting to note the position assumed by our own Mission in 
this comparison with the olives of the world. 





Italy. 




France. 


Spain. 




Razzo 


(1) 




CO 

cu 


Frantojano 




Olivier de Grasse 


Cornicabra or 


C 


Grossajo 




Pleureur 


Mission 


iROU 
Press 

A 


Correggiolo 


(2) 


Pendoulier 


Royal or 


Taggiasco 




Pendulina 


Gordal 




Racemi or Raci- 








noppe 


"J 


Racimal 


m 


Moiinello 




Mouraou 


Nevadillo Blanco 


i—><0>< 

§15 


Morajolo 
Pignolo 


(3) 


Cay on de Marseille 
Picholine 


A r aral Negro 
Lech in 




i ; 

Mionolo 


(4)] 




Manzanillo 




Gremignolo 










Leceino 


J 






P a 


Leccio 


(5) * 




Empeltre 


"j <u 


Columbaro 

Puntarolo 

Trillo 




Verdale 


Verdejo 


'C i 


r 








ft § 


Oleastro 






Acebuche 



24 



THE OLIVE 



Group I represents the olive of the oil press, the most developed, 
cultured and domesticated of all olives. The fruit is of various sizes, 
very fleshy and oily. Sometimes, however, the olive is not very 
oily and then is only good for pickling. It is a large tree and above 
all others produces the best olives for oil. 

Group II consists of middle-class olives, the tree is more rustic, 
the branches more robust and erect, the fruit more fleshy. Tree of 
middle stature. 

Group III covers olives obtained from the seeds of domesticated 
olives ; the most rustic of cultivated trees. Its branches are robust 
and erect, its fruit of various sizes but not very fleshy. A tree gen- 
erally not growing very large but sometimes of rather good appear- 
ance. 

Group IV represents the savage type which is not worth culti- 
vatino; because the fruit is small and the stone is lars;e, with little or 
no pulp. It grows to a bush or small tree of from ten to sixteen 
feet in height. 



DESCRIPTION OF OLIVES. 

GROUP I, 

The Razzo or Frantojano. 

This is the variety mainly cultivated in the provinces of Lucca 
and Pisa, regions that have a world-wide reputation for their oil and 
where, also, are found in less numbers the Mignolo, Morajolo, Pun- 
tarolo and some Grossajo. The twigs of the Pazzo are short, light, 
numerous and rather reflexed. (See Plate III.) It is cultivated 
in groves on the Pisan mountains where, however, the trees are 
too near together and as a result they srrow too high. It will not 
bear much pruning ; all that is necessary is to keep it freed from 
the dead twigs, from shoots that are too high and from branches 



THE WILD OLIVE. 

Plate! 




PLATE II. — THE WILD OLIVE. 

Fig. 17. A branch of wild olive showing its appearance, (re- 
duced.) 

Fig. 18. A branch of wild olive with berry, (natural size.) 

Fig. 19. Longitudinal section of berry, (natural size,) showing 
mesocarp. 

Fig. 20. Form of the nut of the wild olive. 



THE OLIVE 



25 



that disturb the uniform distribution of the fronds. Its leaves 
are narrower at the insertion than at the apex, of a beautiful 
green on the upper side and a strong white on the lower. 

In deep and rich soils it acquires great stature. Fogs, cold and 
variations of temperature do it harm, so much so that it loves pro- 
tected sites, and the half hill, and in districts most exposed to frosts 
prefers the west and northwest exposures to defend itself against the 
danger of sudden thaws. It is immoderately fecund, to the degree 
that it buds even in the midst of blossoming. It retains its fruit 
badly, especially in wind or prolonged heat. 

The berries are roundish, fleshy and richer in oil, than any other 
variety, on which account in the country about Calci, at the foot of 
the Pisan mountains, the people call them " frantojani " or, oil press 
olives. They commence to mature from November and December 
and turn to black and winey black. 

Grossajo, Frantojo or Correggiolo. 
This variety is most cultivated in the districts outside of Lucca 
and Pisa in the best exposures and sheltered spots where the soil is 
rich. It is as delicate as the Pazzo but less fecund and the berry 
less oily. 

It is distinguished from the preceding (see Plate IY) by its nu- 
merous long, subtle and flexible twigs, so that its top is rather spread 
out and makes the ajopearance of a w T illow. It becomes a large tree 
and like the Pazzo needs little pruning. 

The berries are larger than those of the Pazzo, blown up at the 
extremity, curved like a bow on one side, and for oleosity stand next 
to the preceding. In comparison with the weight of the nut the 
flesh is less developed than the Morajolo. It matures at the same 
time as the Pazzo, taking first a lilac color then a wine red and 
even black. 

The Taggiasco. 

This olive prevails in Liguria. It is sensitive to cold and fogs, so 
it prefers the low hills with a sunny exposure and mild temperature 

3 



26 



THE OLIVE 



and defended from the north wind. It sends out a great number 
of twigs subtle, long and bent back which makes the top look sparse 
and willow like. It needs little pruning. It is a large tree espec- 
ially in the spread of its branches. It buds and holds much fruit 
and carries it easily to maturity if not injured by excessive heat or 
harsh winds. The berries are fleshy, abundant in oil, middle-sized, 
pointed and bowed at one side. This olive in appearance seems 
like the Grossajo or Frantojo. 

The Racemi or Racinoppe. 

This olive is of middle stature and is fond of sheltered spots with 
rich and deep soils. Fogs do not harm it. It is very prolific, pro- 
duces many blossoms and giyes fruit in abundance. The berries 
form in bunches of five, six, seven and even nine in a cluster, 
and bend the branches to the ground with their weight. 

The berries are long and bulged at the lower end, fleshy, but do 
not give as much oil in proportion as some of the foregoing. This 
olive has the peculiarity of fruiting on the wood of the year and is 
therefore an annual. It has been introduced into California as the 
Olea Oblonga, in allusion to its shape, but this is a confusion of 
terms as the real Olea Oblonga is the true Picholine. Besides the 
Racemi or Racimal is a better olive than the Oblonga or Picholine. 
and confusion in terms is what we are striving to ayoid. 

Olivier de Grasse or Plant de Solon is called also Tagbasquo, 
Coug?iiale, Olivier a fruit de eornouller, Olivier Pleureur, and is 
in fact the Olea Europea craniomorpha medio fructu cornu of 
Gouan, Uolea Europtea, corniola of Kisso, Eolivier Pendulier of 
Riondet, Eolivo Taggiasco of Liguria and is really nothing else 
than our old friend the Mission olive. 

The Cornicabra or llission. 

This olive according to Tablada is the largest known. Its limbs 
are straight and strong. The smaller branches have an inclination 



THE OLIVE 



27 



towards the ground, and even touch it, completely covering in the 
trunk. The bark is of a gray green. The under side of the leaf 
is a clear white and the upper a smooth dark green with the fibers 
well marked. 

The berry is an inch and a half in height and three quarters of 
an inch in diameter. It weighs five grams, is a black red in color 
and is a clingstone. It gives a good oil, but is late in maturing 
and needs twelve thousand seven hundred degrees of heat, in order 
to ripen, from the time the flow T er ap]3ears until the olive is ready 
for the mill. It needs a careful pruning and frequent clearings. 
The wiser course is to cultivate thoroughly and give the tree fer- 
tilizers rather than to prune closely in order to force the sap into 
the bearing branches. 

In Spain it may be said to be the favorite olive, but in some of 
the northern provinces where the tree is out of its element it gives 
no fruit at all but only attains a colossal size and hence is classed 
by the country people as a wild tree. But as we shall proceed to 
show it has none of the attributes of the wild tree, so far from it 
that it is one of the " oil press olives," one of the varieties most 
highly domesticated and cultivated that the wwlcl knows. 

When olive culture and oil making come to be better understood, 
where each variety is given the treatment it demands and olives are 
gathered at the moment best suited for making the oil, we shall 
probably hear less about the lateness of the Cornicabra in ripening 
under a California sun. 

Racimal. 

A medium sized tree with branches that incline towards the 
ground, and of abundant blossoms. Resists cold and grows steadily 
in all kinds of soil. This is one of the earliest olives to ripen, gives 
a good oil in fair quantity, but it is easily detached from the tree, 
and many berries are lost on this account. It does not produce 
every year, but is apt to only give a crop every other year 
It needs especial care in pruning, for, although it is prodigal of 



28 



THE OLIVE 



leaves, the branches grow slowly and if this is not taken into ac- 
count the tree will be left too bare and its fructification -imperilled, 

GEOUP II MIDDLE CLASS OLIVES. 

The Morajolo or Morinello. 

This olive is more rustic than the Eazzo and Grossajo (see Plate 
Y ! : it endures cold and wind better and contents itself with a lean 
and arid soil. It is the variety most general in Tuscany. Its twigs 
are short, subtle and rigid, tending upwards separating themselves 
little from the trunk and principal limbs. For this reason it has a 
top gathered in and loves to spread broad branches. It attains 
only a medium stature and is less noticeable than the Eazzo and 
Grossajo. The leaves are narrower at the insertion than at the apex 
and have a more pallid tint on the lower side than those varieties. The 
olives are roundish and a little more fleshy than those of the Eazzo. 
Relatively to its nut it has more flesh than the Grossajo but the oil 
is less fine. These are the first olives to change color, between Oc- 
tober and November, dyeing themselves finally a splendid black. 

The Jlov.ra ov or Olivier a fruit rond is called also Mourette 
Negrette. It is the Olea Europea precox of Gouan and Eisso, 
Uolea media rotunda, nigra et rubra precox of Tournifort and 
others. It is similar to the Morajolo. 

The Cay on de Marseille or Plant d'Aix is the Olea Eur open sub- 
rotunda of Gouan, and is similar to the Morojolo in rank, form and 
flower. 

The Picholine, Collias or Corrias, Olivier a petit fruit is the Olea 
Europea Oblonga of Gouan, E Olivier Minares et Genevenses ex 
Provencia of C. Boubier, Eolea fructu oblonga minori of Tournifort. 
Xamed for one Picholini a farmer of the last century. This olive 
grows to be a very large tree when the conditions are favorable to 
it, otherwise it is of medium size only. It needs fertilizing in abun- 
dance. The branches are well set on and easy to direct, but should 
be renewed from time to time or they will be covered with warts to 



THE OLIVE 



29 



which this tree is much inclined. The principal branches are bent 
over with the weight of the fruit which is generally plentiful. 

Contrary to the habit of most olives it does not thrive near the sea. 
About Marseilles a temperature of sixteen degrees Fahrenheit has 
been known to be fatal to it where in the interior it had successfully 
resisted a cold spell of six degrees. This olive needs particular care 
in pruning, so as not to leave the tree too bare of branches, in order 
to take advantage of its tendency to give abundant crops, but on 
the other hand the warts must not be allowed to multiply. 

This olive seems to be a favorite in France where three varieties 
of it are known, but is entirely out of favor in Spain on account of 
its extraordinary tendency to multiply wart excrescences not only 
on the trunk but even up on the small branches and for which 
there is no cure but to cut the tree down to the crotch and let it 
start afresh. 

This difference in habit of the same tree in France and Spain 
would seem to indicate the effect of soil and climate and so much 
the more so as these warts (which will be noticed in the chapter on 
diseases) cannot be traced to the attacks of any insect. Still the 
writer has noticed an olive tree badly afflicted with this disease in 
the vicinity of San Francisco, but it is doubtful whether it was the 
Picholine. 

The late B. B. Bedding, Esq., is credited with the introduction of 
the Picholine olive into California, after searching Europe for the 
plant best adapted to our soil and climate. All honor to Mr. Bed- 
ding for his good intentions. But his knowledge of the olive at that 
early day must have been limited, and he appears to have fallen in- 
to the natural error of supposing that the largest berry was the 
most desirable; for on his return to this State he transferred a part 
of his original invoice of " Picholine" olives to Messrs. W. B. Strong 
& Co. of Sacramento as the Picholine or Queen olive, a large olive 
for pickling. Thus proving that his intention was to import the 
large Queen olive of Spain and also that he was imposed upon. 



30 



THE OLIVE 



The jealousy of the European olive countries lias already been 
noticed and the writer is strongly inclined to think that the olive 
recommended to Mr. Redding and imported into this State by him 
as the Picholine, may be one of the various forms of the wild olive. 
(See Plate II.) Note the similarity of growth, the size of the berry 
and the stone, and of its general characteristics ; its extreme fecun- 
dity, its low stature and its hardiness in all situations. Now on 
the other hand, we know that the real Picholine, in a favorable 
soil, becomes a very large tree, with its branches all well set on and 
growing regularly, and not straggling out in the eccentric manner of 
the wild olive. Without discussing this point farther and granting 
that the olive generally known in California as the Picholine is all 
its advocates claim it to be, and that it is not the wild olive, it seems 
so near akin to it that it is utterly useless to cultivate it for the pro- 
duction of oil for it will not repay one for the care and space in the 
orchard given to it. The same quantity of oil is jjressed from one 
Mission olive that is contained in five Picholines, one dried 
Mission olive weighing 2t*o grams and five dried Picholines, 
weighing 2tfo grams, showing plainly the difference of twenty 
per cent, in favor of the Mission olive and exactly the same quanti- 
ty of oil being produced from each. Hence, the accepted Picholine 
olive will give only eight per cent, of oil, and that of an inferior 
quality, being largely made up from the essential oil contained in 
the stones. But this olive through its extreme rusticity and close 
relationship to the wild olive is, without doubt, the very best possi- 
ble stock upon which to graft, and so, although the introduction of 
this plant may somewhat retard olive culture in this State, it may 
eventually prove a benefit. 

The Nevadillo Blanco or Doncel is the Olea precox of Gouan. 
It is a tree of good appearance with the branches well set on and 
bowed over with the weight of the fruit which it generally bears. 
It is sensitive to cold and demands sheltered situations. It gives 



THE OLIVE 



31 



much oil of a fine quality. It ripens early, but needs careful prun- 
ing as its fruit shoots are somewhat sparse. 

The Varal Negro; Plant etr anger of Oners. 

This is a large tree in a favorable soil, limbs straight and long, 
twigs abundant. The wood is exceedingly hard. It ripens early, 
but is sensitive to cold and needs sheltered situations. It gives 
abundant fruit and good oil. It needs frequent and severe pruning 
to compel it to bear. 

The Lechin or Picholine has been fully described. 

The 3Ianzanillo; Olea Pomiformis of Clemente; Spherica of Gouan; 
the French Ampoulleau. 

This tree needs a good soil, fertilizers and water if the ground is 
too dry. Under these conditions it grows to a very large size. The 
wood is of a dark color. The limbs are long, smooth and curved, 
but the fruit twigs are apt to shrivel and die after the berries have 
prematurely fallen. This is apt to occur with the fruit of this tree 
as the berries are of such very large size and consequently heavy, 
and so are easily detached. For this reason it is a favorite olive for 
pickling as then the berries are picked green. The pruning should 
be limited to frequent trimming and to keeping the tree free from 
dead twigs and broken branches. It ripens very early and with 
little heat, requiring only ten thousand, seven hundred and ninety- 
five degrees of heat from flower to ripened berry. 

GROUP III SEEDLING OLIVES. 

The Mignolo or Gremignolo. {See Plate VI.) 

This olive is cultivated for its rusticity and ability to resist clouds 
and salt sea winds, and where the Razzo, Grossajo and Morajolo do 
not thrive, the Mignolo will do w T ell and give abundant crops. Its 
branches are longer than the Morajolo, less ramified, more rigid 
and more robust, with a tendency to grow up, on which account its 



32 



THE OLIVE 



top is inclined to grow high. So it requires energetic pruning to 
keep it down to a convenient height, The tree is not so large as 
the Morajolo. The leaves are whiter on the lower side, broadened 
from the middle upwards and very pointed. It flowers generally 
on the twigs that have filled out a year and are entering into a 
second year; quite contrary to the Morajolo and other varieties, 
which bud on wood which is two years old and is entering on a 
third. For this reason it flowers so abundantly, that it is a matter 
of doubt whether its name comes from this rich budding or the 
smallness of the fruit. From its facility in buckling and retaining 
its fruit, it produces olives every year. They are round, and rather 
lacking in flesh aild oil, and for size take a position between the 
Razzo and wild olive. It begins to mature in December, turning a 
wine red color. This olive best resists salt wind, dampness and fog. 

The Leccino or Leccio. {See Plate VII.) 

In appearance this variety most resembles the wild olive. The 
Leccino is mentioned by all the ancient Latin authors on the sub- 
ject of the olive, and is the oldest variety that we are able to recog- 
nize. Its twigs are very robust, rigid and very long, and not at all 
ramified, The angle of insertion being about eighty degrees, 
hence the top is little united, and bends over much like a willow 
tree; therefore its name Leccio (Quercus Ilex). It is strong to 
resist wind and cold and the alternations of freezing and thawing. 
This was proved in the winter of 1871-72, when many E.azzo, 
Grossajo, Marajolo, and even Mignolo, perished; while the Leccino 
resisted even a temperature of twelve degrees F. The Leccino 
leaves are very much broadened in the middle, and are obtuse and 
sharp pointed, the lower side being pale, as in the Mignolo. It 
flowers richly, and because of its rusticity holds firmly on to its 
fruit, and carries it to maturity in bunches of two, three, four and 
even five berries. It is very persistent to the peduncle, which is 
sometimes leaved as in the wild olive. 



THE RAZZO. 



Plate HE 




PLATE III.— THE RAZZO. 



Fig. 21. Branch of the Razzo showing its appearance, (reduced.) 

Fig. 22. A twig with olives, (natural size.) 

Fig. 23. Longitudinal section of berry, (natural size.) 

Fig. 24. Form of nut, (natural size.) 



THE OLIVE 



33 



The berries are as large and fleshy as the Grossajo, but not so 
rich in oil. It matures toward the end of November, turning 
black in color. This is decidedly the olive to be cultivated where 
frost is most frequent and dangerous. 

The Puntarolo. (See Plate VIII.) 

This olive has erect twigs, but shorter, less robust and more sub- 
divided than the Leccino ; wherefore it forms its top less open, and 
has a tendency to grow more upward. It is a middle-sized tree, 
with leaves like those of the Leccino in form. It flowers rather 
fully and holds on tenaciously to its fruit, carrying to ripeness a 
goodly number of berries, which are in clusters of two, three and 
four, on peduncles leaved as are the Leccino. The berries, how- 
ever, do not cling to the stem as tightly as the Leccino. These 
are ovate, and so pointed as to give the name of Puntarolo. They 
have less flesh than the Leccino and contain less oil, mature as 
late as the Gremignolo, and change as they do. 

The Trillo olive has twigs as rigid and robust as the Puntarolo, 
rather long and little ramified, so as to appear like the Leccino 
and also a little like the wild tree. It is a middle-sized tree, its 
leaves broad, sharp and spinated in form, darker on the upper side 
and lighter on the lower than the Puntarolo, fecund in flower 
and fruit, which latter comes to maturity in bunches of three and 
four at very nearly the same time as the preceding variety. The 
berries hold on better than the Puntarolo, but not so well as the 
Leccino, and are ovate and pointed like the latter. 

The Trillo and others called Morchiacci, and sometimes simply 
seedlings, are quite like one another in rusticity. Sometimes they 
endure cold as the Morchiacci, and sometimes the sea wind and 
cold as the Puntarolo and Trillo. 

The Empeltre. 

The Empeltve is a tree of small size, with erect and thinly popu- 
lated branches, smooth bark, and shows great vigor in closing 



34 



THE OLIVE 



wounds made by the pruning knife. It both ripens early and 
resists cold. The tree bears fruit at an early age and in great 
quantity, and gives a good quality of oil, but it needs water fertil- 
izers and a loose, rich soil in order to get the best result from it. 

The Verdalier or Verdava, Verdal of Bezier, Verdava of Mont- 
pettier, Olea verdala of Gouan, Uolea media rotunda 
verdior of Tournifort, Verdajo of Tablada; 
Similar to Leccino. 

Tablada says of this olive that in Spain it is generally used for 
pickling, but that it also gives a good oil and ripens early. It will 
resist even more cold than the Cornicabra, but is found in all parts 
of the country. It requires a fertile soil and good cultivation, la- 
though it will accommodate itself to less favorable circumstances, 
but remember, in return it will only produce accordingly. It will 
bear vigorous pruning. 

The Wild Olive. (See Plate II) 

The wild olive has twigs very robust, very long, contorted, rigid, 
little ramified and with angle at insertion of about eighty degrees. 
The leaves are obovate and very wide in proportion to length, are 
pointed, extending in a spine shape. The lower side is not as white 
as in the cultivated varieties. Even on wood that is scarcely a year 
old, it buds abundantly. It retains an enormous quantity of fruit, 
which hangs in bunches of three, four and five berries and which 
cling with tenacity to the stem. The berries mature late, and when 
fully ripe are black, and winey black. They are small (about .315 
of a gramme), rather round and sharp at free end. The fleshy part 
is so thin as to be more like a thin skin than real meat. On the 
other hand the stone is very large, the seed well developed and often 
double. It grows slowly and as regards the appearance of its 
branches, it has a spiney look and is wonderfully strong against 
vicissitudes of climate, and in size it only reaches the height of a 



THE OLIVE 



85 



shrub or small tree. It carries to completion a great number of ber- 
ries. It is well worth using for grafting and counts various varie- 
ties dependent on climate and soil. 

COMPARISONS. 

First — Form — (patting aside height). 

The Bazzo and Grossajo are most similar to each other. 

The Leccino most like the wild tree. 

Second — Form, size, fleshiness of berry. 

The Razzo resembles the Morajolo. 

The Grossajo " " Leccino. 

TheMignolo " " Wild Olive. 

Third — Shape of olive and its appearance. 

The Trillo resembles the Puntarolo. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Olives are better described by the characteristics of the tree than 
by the form or size of the fruit. Note how very much alike in this 
respect are the Grossajo and the Leccino. Pendoulier and Verdale, 
Cornicabra and Yerdejo and how far apart they rank in rusticity, 
stature and oiliness. Looking at the form of the nut we find that it 
follows invariably that of the olive. Whence it appears not to be 
true as has been heretofore believed, that the berries which are 
roundish and enlarged at the extremity vary in form from the nut 
and are therefore more fleshy and oily than the pointed ones. 
Greater fleshiness only can increase the oiliness of the fruit and 
this is entirely independent of the shape it may assume. In truth 
the richest in oil are the olives of Group I, or the oil press olives, 
which resemble in form the Morajolo, the Mignolo and even the 
very wild olive, that is to say are pointed and not round. Hence 
we are led to believe, 

First — That the greater the rusticity of the tree, the less the ram- 
ification of the branches and the greater the persistency of the 
berries. 



36 



THE OLIVE 



Second — That the form of the nut always follows that of the 
berry. 

Third — That the form and size of the berry and nut has no in- 
fluence on the quantity of oil. 

Fourth — That the least fallacious indication of oiliness resides in 
the thickness and weight of the mesocarp. 

The olives discussed are valuable for seed in the following order: 
Wild, Group IV, Wild olive. 

Trillo, 1 

Puntarolo, | n TTT 0 nv 
-r > Group 111, beedlinffs. 

JLeccmo, ( & 

Mignolo, J 

Morajolo, Group IT, Middle class. 
Razzo^ 0 ' } ^ rou P ^' Oil press olives. 

The berries most abundant in oil are as follows in order of merit: 
Razzo, Grossajo, Morajolo, Mignolo, Leccino and others of the 
seedlings. 

The California Mission olive is known to contain some inferior 
varieties, but the writer, at this period, is unable to specify them. 
On the Quito Farm the Cornicabra largely predominates over all 
others. 

CLIMATE. 

"Aut praefefvicl.um end gelidum statum coeli patitur."* 

Columella 

The olive requires a moderate climate, it cannot flourish in or en- 
dure extreme heat or great cold. Its zone of cultivation lies be- 
tween forty-five and eighteen degrees north latitude, and a corres- 
ponding belt in the Southern Hemisphere, outside of either of these 
extremes the tree may possibly live, but will refuse to give any 
fruit. Indeed, south of eighteen degrees in north Africa it attains 
a luxurious growth, but only fruits where it enjoys the caressing 

* " Xor burning heat nor icy cold endures the olive." 



THE OLIYE 



37 



breeze from the Mediterranean Sea. For successful cultivation the 
yearly mean temperatures should not be less than 57 degrees Fah- 
renheit. As to locality where olive culture is possible and practic- 
able. Five hundred and eighty-eight feet of elevation represent one 
degree of latitude, so Colfax with an elevation of 2421 feet above 
the level of the sea and standing nearly on the thirty-ninth paral- 
lel of latitude must be debited with a little more than four degrees, 
which would bring it up to between forty three and forty four de- 
grees, showing that Colfax and places of similar elevation and 
latitude nearly touch the northern limit of the olive in California, 
To cultivate it successfully further north a lower situation must be 
sought. Hence the further south the point of cultivation the great- 
er may be the elevation. In the Sierra Nevada mountains, in Gre- 
nada, Spain, in latitude thirty-seven degrees,- the olive flourishes 
at a height of three thousand feet. In Algiers, North Africa, in 
about latitude thirty-five in the Atlas range, it is found at a height 
of forty-eight hundred feet. 

In Catania, Italy, it is successfully grown at an elevation of three 
thousand one hundred feet. The olive dearly loves a breeze, not 
simply air and ventilation but a veritable soft wind. This is there- 
fore necessary to its well doing, especially at the flowering season. 
A still, intense heat may be fatal to the promise of a crop by burn- 
ing off the blossoms; for this reason and also to escape humidity 
it forsakes the plain and seeks the middle hills. The olive avoids 
the arid tops of wind swept heights but its home is the half hill. 
Follow a line of olive trees up a steep and it will be noticeable that 
those nearest the top are found to be stunted and lacking soil about 
the roots, the earth having been carried down the slope by rains 
and the trees are visibly affected by their situation. 

Within the olive zone there undoubtedly are many points where 
the tree will not thrive because it is exposed to too great cold which 
must be fatal to it — say anything below fourteen decrees — or, if the 
heat be too great it evaporates the sap and thus prevents nutrition. 



38 THE OLIVE 

To temper too warm a climate water seems to be resorted to. In 
the Island of Canclia in the Mediterranean on the thirty-fourth 
parallel the olives fruit regularly when watered, if they receive no 
water it is quite doubtful if the flowers set or not. In Athens, Greece, 
if they are not irrigated their yield is very uncertain. In Africa — 
both in Morocco and Algiers — in order to secure a crop it becomes 
absolutely necessary to give them water. In Valencia and Murcia, 
Spain, it is the usual practice to water the olive, and indeed with a 
loose soil and dry climate the irrigated trees respond with the surest 
crop. But the soil, the climate and the exposure must be the guide 
and indicate the necessity. Owing to the extreme dryness of the 
California summer, it is possible it may become needful in certain 
localities to irrigate the orchard in order to insure a crop. To deal 
with sections where there are apt to be cold snaps, the only remedy 
is to chose those varieties more nearly resembling the wild type 
which are hardier and better able to resist low temperature. The 
smaller the tree and the closer to the ground it grows naturally, the 
more likely it is to be damaged by a frost. On the Quito farm the 
late cold weather* did absolutely no harm although there were trees 
on the place of not more than three years of age, and the mercury 
touched sixteen degrees above zero. Even a higher temperature 
than this has been fatal to olive trees, but that has been the result of 
a sudden thawing after a cold night. Anything lower than four- 
teen degrees of cold is too chilling for the olive to endure; such 
weather not only will kill the leaves and branches, but even the 
wood itself will succumb. The olive is not so hardy as the grape- 
vine, the latter requiring only ten thousand eight hundred degrees 
Fahrenheit to ripen its fruit, whereas the olive needs twelve thous- 
and seven hundred degrees, although some varieties will ripen with 
ten thousand eight hundred degrees, from blossoming time to ma- 
turity, among which is the Spanish Manzanillo. To ascertain 
whether any particular locality in California is suitable for olive 

^January, 1888. 



THE OLIVE 



39 



growing, first consult the thermometer. A mean temperature of 
sixty-one degrees Fahrenheit, from the first of March to the end of 
December inclusive, will be sufficient guarantee; or this same mean, 
from the beginning of the flowering period — say May twentieth to 
the end of December — will ripen the berries. Where the summer 
heat is greater the fruit will ripen earlier. 

The olive begins to move in March at a temperature of fifty-two 
degrees, it buds at fifty-nine degrees and flowers at sixty-seven de- 
grees. The blossoms set at a temperature of seventy-one degrees of 
heat, and to ripen the fruit a minimum of eighteen thousand five 
hundred degrees of heat is necessary, dating from the period in 
March when it first began to move. A good general rule to rely 
upon would be, that where one can obtain a mean temperature for 
spring of fifty-six degrees; for summer, of seventy degrees; for 
autumn, of fifty-eight degrees and in winter a minimum of twenty 
degrees the olive can always be successfully cultivated; bearing in 
mind, however, that some varieties require more heat than others and 
that peculiarities in the atmosphere or the soil may make it impossible 
to grow the olive even with this temperature. To obtain the mean 
temperature with the necessary exactitude requires careful observa- 
tion at least three times a day, and a minimum thermometer to show 
the lowest temperatures during the night and early morning is im- 
perative. A recent invention, however, has simplified this labor very 
much; it is known as Drapers' Recording Thermometer, and con- 
sists of a dial, driven by clock work, which makes a complete revo- 
lution in one week and as it revolves under a pen attached to the 
thermometer proper a curved line in red ink is drawn on the face 
of the dial, which shows by lines thereon the exact temperature of 
the air at every hour during the day and night. The only attention 
this machine requires is to change the dial once a week, to wind the 
clock at the same time,, and to feed the pen with 1 a few drops of pre- 
pared ink. The w T eekly record dial is then filed away, and thus 



40 



THE OLIVE 



with very little trouble the most exact data is obtained for the guid- 
ance of the or char di st. 

The following tables are intended to show the latitude and de- 
grees of heat required for ripening the olive. In Spain it will be 
noticed that the temperature averages very high, with die usual 
result of producing rather too gross an oil. 



Elevation. Latitude. Tem ^ e S ure . 

Seville 300 37.20 68 

Jaen 37.45 64 

Valencia Seaport 39.20 63 

Granada 37.15 61 

Murcia 37.55 66 

Alicante 66 38.20 67 

Badajoz 38.40 63 

Barcelona , Seaport 41.15 63 

Cuidad Real 39.00 62 

Saragossa 613 41.40 60 

Palma 39.30 67 

Cadiz Seaport 36.30 66 

Madrid 1916 40.30 58 



The data from Italy is much more exact, as seen in the following 
tables on pages 41 and 42. These may be constructed for any 
locality in California by first ascertaining the mean temperature 
each month and multiplying it by the number of days in said 
month. It will be noticed that the temperature of San Jose very 
nearly approaches that of Florence. 



THE GROSSAJO OR FRANTOJO 




PLATE IV.— THE GEOSSAJO OR FRANTOJO. 



Fig. 25. Branch of the Grossajo or Frantojo showing its ap- 
pearance, (reduced.) 

Fig. 26. Twig with olives, (natural size.) 

Fig. 27. Longitudinal section showing mesocarp, (natural size.) 
Fig. 28. Form of nut, (natural size.) 



THE OLIVE 



Rome 


CO O 
iO o 


DOiOON'* ONOO't'f 
lO LO •— ' CO OO CO O Ol CO Ol CO 
LO CO O i— i CO Ol i— i Oi iO -f CO CO 
-iHNN(N(M(SHKHHH 


Ol 

oc 

-? 

Oi 

' >o 


o o 


O iO lO h N ^ O M H C ^ CO 
O iC C I> i> t> I> C i-O Tf* *^ 


San Remo 


o o 

LO O 


NOMOiQ^IOMOOCOO 
HHi0N(N03OCC05rt00O 


60.16 

22,043 


o o 

co o j 

rt< oi ajn^Bjadniax 


?1 N CO 05 LO O N CO Ci CO o 


Pisa 


co o 

TP O 


^OiC'ONiOOiMOOTflM 
— < O i—l CO OC Ol CO X' CO iO^N 
O 00_ O HMMHOSiOiOCOCO 
r-Tr-T Of o f Of Of Of —Tr-T r-T —T r-T 


t- 

Ol 

oi 

Ol 

LO 

I> 
o 

CO 


o o 

co oo , 


(M O iO — iN»C!M(MNO-tCs 
lOOOMnNL^OlOiO^II 


© 


CO o 

oq o 


^oioomoo^oocoo 

H-fHNjOlMOOOa — xo 
to 1- O^O CO^CO HOJiO.iq rf^-^H 
— P—Tof of of of of i-T— T— ~— ~i-T 


61.00 

22,590 


2« ° 

^ am;T?J8daiax 


OlCOLOONLOfM^COOOOO 
iO LO C O I> N N C lO ^ O 


AncOna 


r- O 
CO o 


OONOOl^ClNOOIMOO 

lo n oi co x o oi co oi o co 

LO N O Ol ^ M r- O iO rt< CO CM 
— — i Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol — i — — — — 


60.50 

21,982 


o o 

Tt< co ajn^jadraax 


O CO N O i> <N (M (N CO <M CO 
LO LO 'O L— X t- O LO ^ ^ rt< 


Naples 


Ol O 
LO O 


r JJ ■— ' 1 ^* ^ JJ r w 

CO O O Ol — i CC' 01 -f CO iO CO lO 

co CO' i— i oi tt» co oi o co lo ^r< 

r-T — r of of of of of of — r r-T ,_r ,-r 


63.16 

23,037 


o o 

^ »o a.m^.iadraax 


^OX"*XX^©COOCOOI 
lOCOCONNNt-cOLOLO^iO 


Palermo 


v O 

o 


co co l^ co co oo co r ^- co 'CO co 

CO O i-H CO i— ii— (OQr— ONlOlO 
CO CO i— i TP ^ C-l C X O iO ^ 
— T — ~ of of Of Of Of Of r-T — ~ r-T r-T 


-t 

Ol 
CO 

co" 

Ol 

co 

CO 


o o 

CO Ol 

<m ajn^aadraex 


OOiOOIXX^I^O^OOl 
iO O 'O I> N N t>CO O LO LO LO 


Syracuse 


v I«}0X UB8J\[ 
v O 

co o 


COO-t(M-tl^iOCOONHX 

I- GO^O Ol Tt^ TT^ (NrH 00 CO CO TH 

i-fi-Tof of of of of o f i-Ti-Ti— T i-T 


64.75 

23,659 


o o 

t— Ol T 

co i-i ajniiuadraax 


OOCO^OOLOOSO^OICO 
lO O CO 1> N L- "O CO LO 'O LO 


Calabria 


v v lejox u^J\[ 

—l o 

co o 


-fOcOOOOOCOOTflOO 
'O OO Tfl CO GO CO i—l CO CO CO LO iO 

w •O^CO^r-H Tf TP CO f— 1 CO t>- LO Tfl 1 

— Tr-T of of of of of of i-T— "—Tr-T | 


GO 

ol 

o 

LO 

Tpi 
CO 


o o 

OO CO T 

co oi 9jn^J8dai9X 


^OCOOJOONXOl-cHOOI 
O LO CO N X X CO O LO iO LO 


.83 

"S 

C3 
-+^> 
c5 


00 O 

01 Ol 


OOMOhNOXOtpOCO 

:o o o oo i— i Tp t-4 o o i-- 'O lo 

^ a l" ^ '° *° CO i— I OO CO lO 

-T r-T of of of of of of — ~ — T .-T r-T 


65.95 

23,875 


o o 

co co airvreiodaiax 


OOXCOHNNXO^ON 
OCOCOI>OOXNCOOlOlOlO 


PLACE 


Latitude. . . 
Altitude . . 


May 

June 

July 

September . . 

October 

November . . . 
December .. . 
January 
February .... 


Total Fah- } 
renheif.. f 



THE OLIVE 



Jose 
ornia 


V 

CM 


O 
O 


F?*0£ UB9J\[ 


O-^OIOOOONCOMNQH^ 
MOCOCOMMCOOOOOOMU3 

NccHxoooa^'Oio^ 

r-Ti-Tof r-Tof «^rH*i-r^~r-Ti-H\-r 


11,540 




o 
I> 

co 


o 
OS 


9jn^j9dui9x 


^QOOroOHM-ncOCOHiO 
GO -^ © CM I>- CO IO CM CM ^ OO 
id >0 Of rH id IC r-J tO — I OS* — i 

lO iO -O CO CO "O CO CO o >o >o 


CO 
OS 

oo" 

iO 


rin 


V 

TjH 


v 
O 

o 




cMiocM^hcsr-oor^cooo oi-o 

-xt^CO 050MHOJO(NOOiO 
—T r-T CM" CM" CM" H r-T ~ H -f - 


I- 

IO 
«q 
Os" 


H 


O 

iO 

Tji 


CO 
CM 


ejn^jadraajL 


•O lO CM 0C O CO ^ CM i-O CM 0O 
T^iOOCONNCOlO^OOCOCO 


I— 1 

o 
iq 
co" 

iO 


ss 


V 

00 
CM 


O 

o 




NO^ONMOCDOCOCOO 
•O CO 0O CO CO CO ~ f CO OS i— I CM CM 
■fCDOr-WClOlXMHOH 


CO 

CM 
CM 

o" 

co 

CO 


1 


o 

io 

"<cfH 


I- 


8.m^J9dai8X 


r^co-^rHr^cocococococoo 


eg 


V 

O 
CO 


© 
o 




XOIOOOO^OCOOOCOO 

-t^t^O^T— ( "C^OT© t— CO CM r~-t r—i 

— Ti-T of cm' cm" of of *-T —T —T -f r-T 


iO 
OS 

oo 
o" 

CM 

CO 

I- 

>o 


BoL 


o 


o 
00 


9.rn^J8dra9x 


00G0iOOIC0tHOS00CO©CO03 
-^iOCOt--t^t^©iO^ft-<t<C0'^ 


"3> 




© 


fB^OX UT38J\[ 


ioo?io^ooioo>-iaii 

OOI-l-^ONCOOOOf-OO 
CO^iq^OSO__01 i— ^CS I CO CI CM CM 

— T —i" — r cm" of of r-T r-T i-T — r r-T r-T 


o 

CO 

o" 


Per 


o 

CO 
T 


© 

CM 
iO 


ojn^Bjgdraax 


i-O CM Ol OO O CO lO "O i— l OS CO 


CM 

CO 

id 


vento 




o 
o 


p;ox ul'9h 


COOOOOqcsOCOO"*(MCM 
00 CM CO Tf< CO CO OO CO -t< CO O CO 
-f^CO^CO O CM M O N W CO CM 
r-T r-T r-T of o r CM" r-T .-T — 7 i-T r-T r-T 


CO 

co 
^r 1 

o" 

Ol 

OS 

id 

LO- 






o 

o 
] - 


8Jn^J9dlU9X 


M^oooc-qocooco^N'* 

^uOCOCOt^cocOiO^-tiTti^tl 




V 

O 

CM 


o 
o 


1^;0X UB9^[ 


N O N O LO (M O X O (M h (M 
'O 'M CM t>- CM CO OO OS —ft O I - CO 

-^oooxtNot-.^cocicq 


OS 
CO 

o" 


.2 


CO 


o 

oo 

-t 

CO 


9jn;i?J8dra9j j 


N^<MOLC(MCOCOCX)J1htH 
^JHlOCOCOJ>-t^<OiOTfiTtl^-^l 


CM 

o 
>o 
co" 

iO 


05 
W 


] - 

Tin 


V 

o 
© 




OOIOOX^OOO-*HX 
L 2 rH ^ COr- 1 cs O O CO N X 
'O !>■ O i— i CM O GO iO CO CM M 


o 
o 
o 

Ol 

co 

CO 
CO 
iO 


© 


co 


o 

CM 

t>- 


9Jn^BJ9dlU9X 




orno 


CO 
CO 


o 
o 


unox u^9j\[ 


0O O CO ^ iO OS CO CM O CM CO 

iq^t-^o^o^co oi r- 1 os to Tti co co 

-f rH r-T CM" CM" CM" CM" r-T r-T — T r-T r-T 


o 

I ^ 

CO^ 


Liv 


oo 


<J 
CO 


H N CX) © r- (CMCMCOCOCD 


Ol 

co 

CO 
Os" 
iO 


"5 

c 


<M 
CO 


© 
o 




OSO-rHOOCOOCMOTHOlCO 
^^OOCC'OOiOCOOlOCOOCO 
'O OS r-t CO i— I OS tO CO CO CI 


IO 
Ol 


M 


o 

co 

-f 


00 


OSCO^CMOCO^HCMO-tiCMCO 
-tllOCOt^COI^L^COlO -^TtlTjl 


o 

LO 

os' 

iO 














PLACE. 


ft 
P 

EH 

< 


ft 

ft 
P 

H 

ft 

< 


^ : • • . to o a> S p; p £ 

gi&sjs&g.lslii 


ft, a> 

11 

o M 
En 



THE OLIYE 



43 



Wherever eighteen thousand five hundred degrees can be ac- 
cumulated before frost the olive will ripen, so that if this num- 
ber of degrees is shown by October in any certain locality, then the 
olive will ripen there in that month; but in others, where frost in- 
tervenes, the olives must be left hanging on the trees for a longer 
period. This, however, should not extend beyond the end of Feb- 
ruary, as a later date than this is prejudicial to the welfare of the 
trees. The lesson derived from these tables seems to be that where 
the sum total of degrees for the year does not reach twenty-one 
thousand degrees Fahrenheit, the olive fails to ripen ; this we see in 
the following table, is the case in Sienna, Benevento, Perugia, 
Bologna, Milan and Turin, and also that this is the fact where the 
temperature falls below fifty in Xovember. Whether this will prove 
to be as true in California as in Italy experience alone can determine, 

The following table on page 44 is presented in centigrade degrees, as 
in Fahrenheit it would fail to indicate the object intended, which is the 
exact period when the olive ripens. The reason of this is, that in 
Fahrenheit thirty-two degrees of cold are always included which 
are unnecessary and confusing in deciding the period when the 
olive ripens, as only degrees of heat are needed. This period is 
reckoned beginning from the first of June up to such a date as 
shall give three thousand nine hundred and eighty-two degrees of 
heat, which is the amount necessary to ripen the olive. As soon 
as this number of degrees is reached, even though it be the first of 
October, there the olive will ripen at that time. To change a daily 
or average temperature Fahrenheit to Centigrade subtract 32° and 
divide by 1.8, the result will be Centigrade degrees; thus <52 = 
Fahrenheit — 02 ls 2O== " - 110 Centigrade. 

To change Centigrade to Fahrenheit multiply degrees of Centi- 
grade by 1.8 add 32° and the result will be degrees Fahrenheit. 
Thus 20° Centigrade 20x1 .8+32=68° Fahrenheit. 



44 



THE OLIVE 




THE OLIVE 



45 



The following incomplete list of cities and towns in California 
and vicinity shows by their temperature that with few exceptions 
the olive will flourish throughout the length and breadth of the 
State. 



TABLE OF MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND MEAN ANNUAL TEMPER- 
ATURE, WITH LATITUDE AND ALTITUDE OF POINTS 
OF INTEREST IN CALIFORNIA. 



Location. 


Lai. 


Alt. 


I Aver. 
1 Max. 


Aver. 
Mix. 


; A1EA>.. 




OO. 01 


1 QQ 

loo 


y*. 


Oil. 






o a x.— 
oo.Oi 


l.oOU 


go 
OO. 


oy. 


OO. 




OO . 1 / 


1 OQA 


QQ 
OO. 


A x. 
40. 


P.A 
04. 




QQ QS 
OO.OO 


qaq 

ooo 


OO. 


Qfi 
OO. 


oy. 




Q Q A A 


lyo 


OQ AC) 

oo. 4^ 


Ad AO 


U X 

DO. 




34.02 


965 


89.42 


41.66 


62.08 




QO f\Q 
ov.Vo 


O A OO 


ox AO 
OO. 4 J 


Al X A 

41. OU 


X(i AT 

oo. yi 




Qa a A 


25 


01. 


44.92 


oO. 




3t>.4o 


292 


90.12 


45. 


64.34 




38.18 


50 


88. 


43. 


62. 




')Q A Q 

oo.-iy 












oO.oy 


1 AO 

lyo 


0*7 

0/ . 


38. 


X o 

ob. 




oo.4o 


OA 

20 


10U. 


50. 


73. 


XT 


O X 1 o 
OO. 1 L 


O — A X 

1, I Oo 


81. 


32. 


54. 




O" A O 

o/ .4^ 


48o 


88. 


39. 


58. 




34.03 


293 


89.67 


51. 


64.75 


"vr~ - 


•>0 AO 


1 A 
10 


76. 


42. 


56. 




39.10 


66 


88.17 


42.75 


63.58 




O- OA 

o t .20 


171 


89. 


41. 


63. 


■\r»: 


35.02 


2,751 


87. 


47. 


63. 




36.37 


5 


78.50 


42.83 


57.40 


Napa . 


38.21 


20 


87.58 


37.50 


59.19 


Oakland 


37.49 


12 


69.33 


42.58 


54.75 




35.38 








56. 




40.37 


557 


86.33 


43.16 


61.58 


Red Bluff 


39.08 


308 


90.50 


45.67 


64. 




39.31 


4,497 


72. 


32. 


49. 




36.41 


44 


75. 


42. 


56. 




38.36 


30 


80.58 


44.92 


60.33 




32.45 




82.83 


47.50 


61. 




34.26 


30 


61. 


46.18 


60. 




37.34 


22 


78. 


44. 


54. 




35.18 








56.96 




37.48 




76.25 


42.33 


55.25 


San Jose . 


37.21 


91 


83.08 


39.83 


56.75 




36.58 


18 


82.67 


42.42 


58.08 




37.00 


20 


85. 


30. 


57. 




37.58 , 


23 


79.50 


41.50 


58. 




35.24 


415 


89. 


43. 


64. 




39.20 


7,017 


58.17 


21. 


40.66 




35.06 


3,964 


1 78. 


32. 


52. 




39.20 


•5,819 


68.83 


21.25 


43. 




36.13 


282 


87. 


43. 


64. 




38.41 | 


63 


86. 


49. 


61. 




37.4^ 












32.44 


140 


93. 


58. 


74. 



46 



THE OLIVE 



EXPOSURE. 

The situation suitable for the olive in one locality, will not always 
answer in another. A southerly ex2)osure, where there is a good, 
free circulation of air, is generally the most desirable, esj3ecially as 
one goes northward. In any latitude, a southern exposure, is best 
calculated to receive the sunshine from early sunrise to sunset. It 
receives all there is to give. A northerly exposure receives the sun's 
rays obliquely, and then only after it has risen high in the 
heavens ; and so, as the sum total of heat is less, the fruit 
ripens late, and in some cases not at all. An easterly exposure has 
the full force of the sun all the morning, but after noon, there is 
either no sunshine, or feeble, slanting rays, so that at the very time 
when the sunlight is strongest^ an easterly position is deprived of 
its warmth altogether. Of course a westerly exposure is just the re- 
verse of this, and after a morning passed in the shade, the tree is 
suddenly overwhelmed with sunlight at a time of day when the 
temperature is the highest. In summer, the variations of tempera- 
ture in half an hour's time, may be from sixty to ninety-eight de- 
grees. This sudden change is as harmful to plants as to animals. 
The more perpendicular the sun's rays are, naturally, the more heat 
they give; so also the farther north one goes, the more oblique they 
become and lessen in warmth. Therefore the higher the latitude, 
the greater the necessity of a hillside to receive the sun perpendic- 
ularly. A well-protected situation, with a southern exposure, may 
be considered equal to a point one degree farther south. The in- 
fluence of a protection, be it a mountain range, a fence, or a hedge, 
is felt for a distance equal to eleven times its height, but at the 
point where the protecting influence is lost, the wind has greater 
power than if the shelter did not exist. Strong and impetuous 
winds injure the olive, especially sea winds, on account of their 
vaj)or and saline j)roperties. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Gasparix. 



"Cet arbre vient sur tons les terraius." 

" And first for heath and barren hilly ground, 

Where meagre clay and flinty stones abound ; 
Where the poor soil all succor seems to want, 

Yet this suffices the Palladian plant . 
Undoubted signs of such a soil are found, 

For here wild olive shoots o'erspread the ground 
And heaps of berries strew the fields around." 

Y IB GIL GEORGICS II. 249. 

The olive will live in almost any soil except a dry and compact, 
or a humid one. An analysis of the ashes of the wood, leaves, and 
fruit of this tree s;ive the folio win 2: result : 



Potash 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Sulphuric Acid 

Silicate 

Phosphoric Acid 

Phosphate of Iron 
Chloride of Potassnm 



WOOD. LEAVES. I ERUIT. 



20.60 
63.02 
2.31 
3.09 
3.82 
4.77 
1.39 
1.00 



24.81 
56.18 
5.18 
3.01 
3.75 
3.24 
1.07 
2.76 



53.03 
15.72 
4.38 
1.19 
5.58 
7.30 
2.24 
9.56 



100.00 400.00 100.00 



The berry, and especially the meaty part, contains a very large 
proportion of potash, while the wood and the leaves abound in lime. 
This is an important fact. The deduction from it is that a soil, 
rich in these ingredients, possesses all the conditions necessary for 



48 



THE OLIYE 



the complete development of the plant, and the abundant produc- 
tion of the best quality of fruit. Hence, it is safe to assume, that 
the olive prefers a soft, friable, moderately cool soil, and one rich in 
lime and potash; a permeable soil, such as a limey clay of medium 
consistency, not inclined to either dryness or humidity. The roots 
would then encounter no obstacle in extending themselves, and the 
air and moisture could circulate sufficentry. Lime, abounding phos- 
phates, magnesia, with an abundance of silicates of alum and mer- 
cury, and a sufficiency of potash and soda, are the chemical and 
physical requisites which this tree will find most advantageous to 
its development, and cause it to produce abundantly, and, provided 
other circumstances are equal, give the very best oil. It is seen 
that the olive will flourish wherever its roots will penetrate easily, 
and there is no deficiency of lime and alkali, such as a loose soil of 
rocky clay, or sand of volcanic or granite formation. But, while 
the olive will subsist on many different soils, and prosper in several, 
it is not to be concluded that it may be condemned to bare, sterile, im- 
poverished ground, where not even a forest tree would be nourished. 

The latitude must largely guide one in selecting the kind of soil 
for an olive orchard. 

In Andalucia and Valencia, in southern Spain, the mean sum- 
mer temperature is as high as eighty-two degrees. There, they hold 
red soils in very low estimation, and prefer the light colored or 
white; considering that the red attracts too much heat, and requires 
too much fertilization and irrigation, without which the tree gives 
no fruit in that latitude. There, a very porous soil, giving free pas- 
sage to moisture, and evaporating freely, requires repeated fertilizing 
and watering. Going north in central Spain, the light red soil 
with a porous tendency to carry off the frequent rains, is preferred, 
and the white is altogether condemned. Still further north, the 
dark red and very porous soils are exclusively used. The cal- 
careous soils, through their action on the natural and artificial fer- 
tilizers, quickly put into circulation the elements of nutrition of the 



THE MO RAJ 0 LP OR MQRINELLO. 

Plated 




PLATE V.— THE MORAJOLO OR MORINELLO. 

Fig. 29. Branch of the Morajolo or Morinello showing its ap- 
pearance, (reduced.) 

Fig. 30. Twig with olives, (natural size.) 

Fig. 31. Longitudinal section of berry showing mesocarp, (nat- 
ural size.) 

Fig. 32. Form of nut, (natural size.) 



THE OLIVE 



49 



olive, and so promote its growth; but for this very reason require 
that the trees should be frequently manured in order to obtain an 
annual product. It is the want of nourishment in the ground, that 
causes the olive to fruit only every othei year, or every third year. 

An irrigated soil loses its fertility quicker than one that is not 
watered ; so, where irrigation is practiced, it is necessary to fre- 
quently manure. In general, it may be said that the olive requires 
the same kind of soil as the vine, and in proof of that we often see 
them grown together. Excessive moisture is prejudicial, and also 
in a dry, hard soil the tree contracts, splits, and leaves the roots 
gorged with sap. The most favorable soil is an open, loose and 
fairly fertile one, and should be of at least a yard in depth to give 
the roots opportunity to extend themselves. 

The olive is fond of a chalky soil, that is, one largely made up of 
lime carbonates. The carbonate of lime is indispensable to vegeta- 
ble life; and it is noticed, that the oil from olives grown on a calcare- 
ous soil, is better than that from a soil lacking in this element. 
Chalky soils are cold, because they do not easily absorb the heat of 
the sun. For the same reason red soils are warm, absorbing and 
retaining a great degree of heat. The best soil for the olive is that 
in which lime predominates; and where silica exists, and there is no 
lack of clay. Such a soil would give passage to moisture, and offers 
no obstacle to the extension of the roots, and at the same time has 
consistency enough to sustain the tree and preserve the elements of 
nutrition. The oxicle of iron exists in all soils, but where it abounds, 
the red color declares it. It is favorable to the growth of the olive, 
particularly in cold regions. 

Suppose two adjacent pieces of ground in such a locality; on the 
red soil the olives will ripen, whereas on a light colored one they 
will not. 

Liebig says, that when at the time of flowering of any vegetable, 
the soil abounds in phosphates, the fruit sets well, and is started on 
its road with every advantage; and on the contrary, if these are lack- 



50 



THE OLIVE 



ing, the flowers fall off and the tree gives its strength to wood. 

The hygroscopicity of a soil, or the property of retaining moist- 
ure, is of great value in a hot and dry country, It is well known 
that the more a soil is manured and cultivated, the more moisture 
it retains. The following table will show the percentage of water 
contained in different soils. 

Water contained 
m 100 parts 
of earth 

Silicious sand 25 

Gypsum 27 

Calcareous sand 29 

Dry chalk , 40 

Chalk, somewhat more fertile 50 

Clay soil 60 

Clay, pure 70 

Calcareous soil 85 

Manure 1.90 

Garden soil 89 

Arable land 52 

The capacity to absorb humidity from the atmosi3here varies with 
different soils. The following are the results of experiments. 



Gyps 



um . 



Clay 



Absorbs in 24 hours. 


.0 of water 


1.5 " 


u 


0.5 " 


u 


13.0 " 


it 


15.0 " 


a 


18.0 " 


a 


21.0 " 


u 


15.5 " 


u 


38.0 " 


(( 


48.5 " 


a 


22.5 " 


a 


11.0 " 


u 



THE OLIVE 



51 



Absorbtion is greater by night than by day. and recently cultiva- 
ted ground is the most receptive, as it exposes the greater number 
of particles to the action of the air. 

As the earth grows dry. its capacity to absorb moisture diminish- 
es. So we observe that ground frequently and thoroughly cultiva- 
ted retains moisture the longest. 

THE DRYING QUALITY OF SOILS. 



Of 100 parts 
of water. 

Silicious sand in four hours evaporates 88.4 

Calcareous " " " " " 75.9 

Gypsum " " " " 71.7 

Dry chalk " " " " 52.0 

Earthy " " " " " 45.7 

Clayey soil « " " " 34.6 

Clay " " " " 31.9 

Carbonate of lime in four hours evaporates 28.9 

Manure " " " " 20.5 

Magnesia " " " " 10.8 

Garden earth " " " " 24.3 

Arable hand " " " 32.0 



These figures indicate what we see in practice, that the more 
sandy the soil, the sooner it dries. Some soils when they dry, actu- 
ally diminish in volume, and through splits and cracks expose the 
roots of the tree. Sandy, limey and gypsum soils do not have this 
drawback ; the others vary in the following degrees. 

Of 1000 parts. 

Carbonate of lime soils loses 50 



Dry chalk " " 60 

Earthy " " " 89 

Clayey soil " " 114 

Clay " " 183 

Magnesia " " 4 154 

Manure " " 200 

Garden earth " " 149 

Arable land " " 95 



THE OLIVE 



Different soils retain heat in proportion to their weight ; a pebbly 
soil retains heat longer than one of fine sand. Chalky and clay 
soils quickly lose heat ; and, on this account, the former is called an 
early soil, and the latter a late one. The color of the soil has much 
to do with the absorbtion of heat. In any given earth there is a 
difference of fourteen degrees, Fahrenheit, between the extremes of 
color. 

The ancients thought that the olive would not grow unless it had 
the sea air, and laid down the rule, that it should not be planted 
more than ninety miles inland. The Arabic and Latin authors fol- 
low the same recommendation ; but it has been well established, that 
the olive can be grown at any distance inland, provided the soil and 
climate are agreeable to it. Pliny remarks, the olive of the low 
land is more liable to disease, than that grown on high ground. 



©Jertifizcrfjon 



chapter v. 

" Quite opposite to these are olives found, 
No dressing they require and dread no wound ; 
No rakes nor harrows need, but fixed below, 
Rejoice in open air, and unconcern'dly grow. 
The soil itself due nourishment supplies ; 
Plough but the furrows and the fruits arise, 
Content with small endeavors, till they spring, 
Soft peace they figu re and sweet plenty bring. 
Men olives plant, and hymns to Pallas sing." 

Virgil, Georgics II, 586. 

So says Virgil, seemingly indicating that the soil of Italy at that 
time was richer and stronger than at present., for later experience 
has overwhelmingly demonstrated that fertilization is indispensable 
to the olive. 

The analysis of the wood, leaves, and fruit of the olive, given in 
the preceding chapter, is equally applicable when considering the 
proper methods of fertilization. Lime for wood and leaves, and 
potash for the berry, seems to be the lesson it teaches. 

It is no more possible in olive cultivation, than in the growing of 
any other vegetable, to year after year draw certain ingredients from 
the soil, without ever returning them again, and expect the trees to 
keep on giving fruit without receiving the nutriment they crave. 

Fertilization is indispensable to maintain the olive in a prosper- 
ous and fruitful condition. In rich soils it may for a certain time 
be omitted, but a continued neglect will diminish the productiveness; 
and fructification will become infrequent and unremunerative, in 
places where the tree is seldom or never fertilized. The lack of 



o4 



THE OLIVE 



manure, is one of the causes of the plant becoming weak and sickly, 
and bearing heavily only at long intervals. To fertilize an olive 
tree well, it is sufficient to restore to the ground the refuse from the 
oil making and the ashes of the branches from pruning. The most 
valuable fertilizer, is the water pressed from the olive. It is heavily 
charged with vegetable matter, black in color, and should be col- 
lected in a vat at the time of oil making. To this should be added 
the pomace, after all the oil is extracted. To increase the quan- 
tity, and at the same time add to the richness of this manure, grind 
into the mass marine plants for their jDotash, or in the absence of 
these, ferns, rushes, cornstalks, wheat and barley, straw, dregs of 
pressed grapes, vine twigs, or broom corn. Good, but in a lesser de- 
gree, because poorer in mineral properties, are husks of decayed 
olives, scrapings from threshing floors and refuse of whatever na- 
ture. These ingredients are very advantageously mixed during fer- 
mentation. As each, or any of these materials are thrown in, add a 
laver of earth. Keep this receptacle covered till the rains are well 
over, and then let the summer sun have access to it and the fermen- 
tation be thorough. The water will now have precipitated all val- 
uable matter, and if it exists in too great quantities, let some run off; 
but enough should always be left in the vat, to allow the mass to take 
up moisture in place of that which is given off in fermentation. 
Care should be taken to locate this putrifying mass at a distance to 
leeward of the dwellings, or sickness might easily result from it. 
By September it can be cut out with a spade, like peat, and will make 
the very best of fertilizers for the olive orchard. But this is a pow- 
erful agent and should never be applied to the trees until thor- 
oughly fermented in the manner described. If used as manure with- 
out fermentation, or mixing with other ingredients, the result would 
be the roots would be burned and the trees killed. The writer has 
seen the branches on young trees wither and die from coming in 
contact with pieces of sacking saturated with olive water and oil, 



THE OLIVE 



55 



and which had been used to protect the tree from rubbing against 
the stake to which it was tied. 

The proper season to dress the olive, varies according to the cli- 
mate, the soil, and yield of the plant. In a mild climate, however, 
the dressing may be applied in autumn and winter, whilst in more 
northern regions, it would be best oiyen after all danger of freezing 
was past. The olive may be dressed in two ways — If the compost 
be plentiful, and the trees near together, it should be applied by 
scattering it about the orchard, and afterwards turning it under with 
a spade, a hoe, or plough : or, it should be done by digging holes 
about the tree, in a radius of from two and a half, to four and a half 
or six feet, according to the age and size of the tree. These holes 
should be from twelve, to sixteen inches deep, and should be dug- 
some weeks before the dressing is applied, in order that the soil 
about the roots may be fully aired. 

In localities where compost is scarce, it is well to alternate fertiliz- 
ation by plowing under lupins, beans or other vegetable matter of 
easy growth. If the dressing of the soil is done biennially, one 
half of the ground could be plowed under as stated. It' triennial- 
ly. the plowing under could follow, and a third of the plantation be 
plainly worked. If quadrennially, the surface should be divided 
in four sections, of which the first should be manured, the second 
worked, the third plowed under, and the fourth worked. 

The nature of the fertilization that is necessary, cannot be exactly 
determined by the ashes of the wood alone, as the proportions of 
these may vary from a multiplicity of circumstances. The surest 
test for the fertilization, is the knowledge of the loss to which the 
tree has been subjected in fruit, leaves, and wood : and the object 
should be to restore to the soil that which has been taken from it in 
producing these. No manure should be applied till it is thoroughly 
fermented. To throw ttnfermented, or indeed any manure, close up 
against the trunk of the tree, is to do harm instead of good. With 
the rain fermentation starts again, and the heat generated is prejtt- 



56 



THE OLIVE 



dicial to the tree as well as being a centre for the propagation of 
harmful insects. The suckers about the root are nourished to the 
detriment of the tree. The roots of the olive lie remarkably near 
the surface and these are the parts of the tree needing fertilization 
which should never be attempted nearer than a yard from the 
trunk. In cold regions, that is on the northern limit, sheep and 
goat dung is found to be an excellent manure: in temperate parts, 
stable ordure is good, and in hot regions cow dung is the best. It 
has been calculated that two hundred and twenty pounds of manure 
are equivalent to one gallon of oil. The foliage which falls natu- 
rally and decays under the trees every year, is eleven pounds per 
tree. The weight of these leaves is to the weight of the fruit as 71 
is to 100. 

The leaves taken off with the branches in pruning, supposing that 
operation is performed frugally and regularly, amount annually to 
a little more than a pound per tree. This foliage which is not re- 
stored to the soil, represents a. weight of 5.50 per 100 and this is the 
18th part of that which clothed the whole plant. The wood lost to 
the olive by meteorological accidents, and by pruning, may be esti- 
mated at seven pounds to the tree. The wood and leaves obtained 
by pruning are to each other as the number 78 and 22 are to 100. 
That is to say, in one hundred pounds of primings there would be 
22 pounds of leaves to 78 j^ounds of wood. With these data for a 
basis, the actual annual loss of the olive may be estimated as follows : 

The olive consumes in fruit J3er tree, 15 lbs. 

" leaves " " li " 
" wood " " 7 

Manure is the dressing most commonly used for the cultivation of 
the olive, and is best administered when mixed with other fertil- 
izers. Each year the amount of compost necessary to restore to the 
soil the principles essential to fertility, would be thirty-six pounds 
per tree, and that, a tree of medium size and one moderately pruned. 



THE MIGNOLO OR GREM I GNOL& 



Plate YE 




PLATE VI. — THE MIGNOLO OR GREMIGNOLO. 

Fig. 33. Branch of the Mignolo or Gremignolo, showing its ap- 
pearance, (reduced. ) 

Fig. 34. Twig with olives, (natural size.) 

Fig. 35. Longitudinal section of berry, showing mesocarp, (nat- 
ural size.) 

Fig. 36. Form of nut, (natural size.) 



THE OLIVE 



57 



To restore the same fertilizing principles with the foliage of the tree, 
alone, it would be necessary to yearly use at least fifty-two pounds. 

Without manure the olive gives but a small crop of berries. 
Anything that can be used to enrich the soil is valuable; decayed 
vegetable matter, night soil, old rags, shoes, bones, hoofs, guano, 
fowl dung, are excellent manures. Green manure, in the dry sum- 
mers of California, can be employed to great advantage. 

During the early autumn rains, plants of rapid winter growth, 
such as beans, lupins, vetches, are sown in the orchard and turned 
under in the spring, thus giving a cheap manure without any cost 
for carriage. Whatever may be the nature of the manure, it is im- 
portant not to place it at the foot of the trees, but to bury it at a 
slight depth from one to two yards distant from the trunk, digging 
a shallow trench for the purpose. It is a matter of absolute neces- 
sity to manure the olive, under penalty of losing all produce if 
abandoned to itself, and remembering also, that the produce will al- 
ways be in proportion to the manure applied. In fact some writ- 
ers say, that if the olive is not largely manured it had much better 
be pulled up altogether. 

M. Riondet says: The expense of cultivating the olive varies 
greatly. If they are never manured, or pruned, the cost will not 
amount to more than eight dollars per annum, per acre, or sixteen dol- 
lars for two years, for this is the period that always enters into these 
calculations, since the tree ordinarily only gives a crop every second 
year. If it is desired to have regular and abundant crops, we 
should not fear to spend eighty dollars per acre every two years. 

In the winter, after an abundant crop, it is necessary to manure 
the orchard heavily, at an expense of twenty-four dollars per acre, 
pruning, will cost sixteen dollars per acre, ploughing, sixteen more 
to which add for the expense of gathering and taking the crop to 
mill, another twenty-four dollars, and so we reach the sum of eighty 
dollars per acre for a period of two years. There will be a product 
of one thousand one hundred and thirty-two gallons of olives, per 



58 



THE OLIVE 



acre, every two years, which should be the equivalent of one hun- 
dred and fifty-four gallons of oil, per acre, for each period of two 
years. This will not come far from an annual average of one gal- 
lon per tree, and if the olive grower could assure himself of such 
a yield, he might well be satisfied. 



Muftipfi cation of ffie ©fi*e 



CHAPTEE VI. 



" Quin et condicibus sectis mirabile dictu Truditur e sicco radix oleagina ligno." 

Virgil, Geoegics n, 30.* 

The olive is propagated in many different ways, by seed, by cut- 
tings, by truncheons, by grafts, by suckers, by knots, by layering, 
and by pieces of the root. 

SEED. 

The best method, in spite of all that may be urged against it, be- 
cause the natural one, is the planting of the seed. All others are 
mere continuations of a life already existing but with each seed is 
produced, in the manner intended by nature, a new tree. The non- 
success that has attended many efforts to raise the olive from seed 
in California, undoubtedly arose from faulty handling. Some go 
so far as to claim that the Mission olive contains no germ. This is 
absurd. The Mission olive contains well developed seeds in the 
same proportion that all others do, A T iz., the poorest olive for oil or 
pickling is the best for seed. The olive nearest approaching the 
wild type, the olive that contains the largest seed in proportion to 
the berry, is the best for planting. One tenth of the stones of the 
wild olive have a double germ and this is the best of all olives for 
seed, second the Mignolo, third the Eazzo, Leccino, Puntarolo and 
Trillo, fourth the Grossajo and fifth the Morajolo. 

* Some cloven stakes, and (wond'rous to behold) their sharpened ends in earth their footing place 
unci the dry poles produce a living race. 



60 



THE OLIVE 



A tree grown from seed, has a long tap root, and a very straight 
smooth stem, which shows the vigor of the plant; while a tree raised 
in any other way has not these advantages. Its pivot root gives 
it a force that other trees do not possess. It is more productive, 
will resist diseases better, and is a hardier tree than one raised from a 
cutting. 

When the ground is loosened by rain, and the tree is loaded with 
fruit, a heavy wind sometimes overturns the olive, this could not 
happen to a tree from seed, its tap root takes too firm a hold. This 
accident occurred on the Quito Farm in the winter of 1886, and the 
trees which were so unfortunate had to be replanted and cut back 
to the crotch being lost to the place as fruit bearers for the 
next four years. 

Again the time lost in raising from seed is more apparent than 
real, for, after the early years of its life, the advantages are wholly in 
favor of the tree raised from seed. The weight of opinion, derived 
from an experience of centuries, favors this method. 

In 1882, the Congress of the Italian Agriculturists, meeting at 
Bari, arrived at the following conclusion : — That persons be recom- 
mended to raise their olive trees from seed, in preference to any 
other method. 

If proof were needed that the olive will grow from seed in Cali- 
fornia, we have it in the fact that various parties have successfully 
raised the Mission olive in this way. Whatever seed may be sown y 
the resulting plant will be the wild type, and should be grafted, in 
the nursery, when from two to three years old. 

By actual count on the Quito Farm, one hundred Mission olive 
pits gave fifty well developed germs. 

To hasten germination the seeds should be stripped and soaked 
in lye for two or three days, then dried and placed in a dry spot, 
or disposed in layers in a box with dry sand, being well covered 
with earth to keep out water. When the time comes for sowings 
sow the seeds without detaching the sand that clings to them. 



THE OLIVE 



61 



Some writers suggest that they should be fed to domestic fowls as 
the best way to strip them; and passing them through a goat is said 
to be the best mode of all. Olive seeds unstripped never germi- 
nate in less than eight, nine and twelve months, and when the ber- 
ries are under ripe even in two years, and sometimes not at all. 
Care should be taken in selecting berries for seed, to choose only 
such as are thoroughly ripe. 

To save loss of time, and assure oneself of there being a seed in 
the olive, break it with a hammer, strike a single light blow so as 
not to injure the seed, or a still better but slower way is to use a 
vice. So treated the buds will come out in thirty to forty days. 

For bed, dig a foot deep, manure it richly, plant the cracked seeds 
at a depth of two inches and about four or five inches apart. Where 
there is no danger of winter frosts, the planting may be done in 
October and November, but where this drawback is feared, Febru- 
ary and March would be the better months. Careful cultivation is 
necessary. When the trees are six to eight inches high, that is, 
when about a year old, they should be transferred into a nursery. 
In transplanting, the roots injured in the process should be trimmed 
down, and the lower one-third of the tap root cut off at the point 
where it begins to grow noticeably small. Also the lateral branches 
, should be cut off, leaving only a leaf on the main stem where the 
branch intersected. This increases the growth of the young plant 
and makes a straighter and finer trunk. If the laterals are left on, 
they receive the nourishment first from the roots to the detriment of 
the plant. If cut off later, as must be done, the wounds to the tree 
are larger, and so the tree is harmed. The leaves must be left on, 
as they fill the necessary office of absorbing the carbonic acid, so 
necessary to the life of the plant. With the young tree raised from 
a cutting, on the other hand, it is unnecessary to take off the lateral 
branches, the aim being to stimulate root making; the cutting hav- 
ing none. 

In transplanting to permanent position from the nursery, there 



62 THE OLIVE 

are two methods of treatment each having its advocates. One is to 
cut off all branches in order that the strength of the tree may go 
entirely to root making, and the other to leave the five six or 
seven branches forming the head. 

In the first instance the new branches are apt to put out half 
way up the stem, when the plant has to be cut down to them, and 
the result is that the head is formed too low. On the other hand 
in transplanting with the head formed, these branches are apt to 
suffer at first from lack of nourishment, and so check the growth. 
The good of the tree would be consulted by taking off all branches, 
but if the head can be left on, fruiting will be anticipated by about 
two years. In truth the good features of each method may be 
adopted by leaving the head on, but clipping the branches very 
short. The tree may also be compelled to branch at the desired 
height by bending down the little branches forming the head, and 
tying them to the trunk during the two years proceeding its re- 
moval from the nursery. This will cause the sap to accumulate 
there, and when the tree is deprived of all its branches at the time 
of transplanting to a permanent position, the new branches will 
come out there in preference to any other part of the tree. But 
the tree is the more vigorous as the trunk is kept short. Inset- 
ting out in permanent position in orchard if on level land plant, from 
two to four inches deeper than in nursery, and if on a hillside from 
four to eight inches. A layer of chaff or cut straw placed about 
the tree just before filling up the hole, will serve to retain the 
moisture in the soil. In removing trees from the nursery to final 
locality, mark the south side so that they may be replanted in the 
same position. If this is not done the tree often remains stationary 
for a long time. Some writers have advocated reversing the 
former j)Osition with the idea of equalizing the growth, but this 
appears to simply stop the onward march of the tree where it 
might be gaining all the time; or were any equalization of growth 
necessary it could be accomplished in the pruning. The young 



THE OLIVE 



63 



trees should be topped with an inclination of south to north and 
the cut always covered with grafting wax. A grove of olive trees 
should be planted so that at the spring equinox no tree will cast a 
shadow on its nearest neighbor from south to north. 

CUTTIXGS. 

This mode of propagating the olive is popular in Spain and in 
certain parts of Italy and Sicily. It was also known to the ancients. 
But in many localities it has been abandoned as being too uncertain. 
For cuttings take clean and well sized branches of from one to 
four inches in diameter, and cut in one foot lengths. These should 
be prepared in winter, before vegetation commences and the buds, 
move, but if they are not immediately planted, they should be kej)t 
covered in a moist, cool place. The essential conditions for rooting 
are, moderate moisture in the soil, a subterranean temperature of 
about forty-one degrees P., with an atmospheric average of from 
fifty to fifty-two, thus giving time for the roots to form, extend and 
strengthen in advance of the first dryness of spring and early sum- 
mer. Cuttings put in in April or May, root quicker but demand 
more frequent irrigation. Those will do best, which before being 
cut off from the mother branch, have been either ringed, or burned, 
or skinned, below a bud, so as to form a knot above the wound. 
There are many different ways of putting out cuttings. They may 
be planted in a trench well manured, each two making a triangle, 
the bottom of the trench being the base, and the two cuttings meet- 
ing at a point and being covered with from three to four inches of 
earth ; when the young shoots have attained sufficient size to trans- 
plant, they may be torn away with a quick jerk, generally bringing 
with them a strip of bark which will suffice as a root, and leaving the 
parent cutting in place, where it will immediately produce more 
shoots which may be treated in the same way. 

Very good results have been attained by planting a cutting hori- 
zontally, and covering it with four inches of earth ; by some this 



64 



THE OLIVE 



method is preferred to any other. It is desirable that the cutting 
should he entirely covered with earth, as otherwise the sun will 
check and burn it, so as to make any good result impossible. 

For California orchards, where as speedy an issue as possible is 
desired, if two cuttings are planted together in the spot where the 
future tree is intended to grow, the outcome will probably prove sat- 
isfactory. The two cuttings should give birth to at least one tree, 
and this never being disturbed by transplanting, will make an ex- 
traordinary growth. Should more than one tree make its appear- 
ance, the extra ones may be used to supply those that fail altogether. 

The smaller the cutting the greater is the necessity for planting it 
horizontally. 

truncheons. 

The question is often asked, how long before the olive will bear 
fruit ? In answer to this, it may be said, that it depends very much 
upon the size of the wood planted. A truncheon sometimes bears 
in the following year from that in which it was put into the ground, 
and generally in the third year. But it must be well understood 
that it is at the expense of the tree. Cuttings, insomuch as they 
are so near the surface of the ground, demand greater care than 
truncheons, being exposed to danger from animals and frost. But 
if they survive these early perils, the vigorous shoots of the cut- 
ting soon equal the truncheon in size, and at the end of fifteen years 
pass it in the race. The tree grown from a cutting is lustier, bet- 
ter shaped, and more productive than that from a truncheon. The 
latter solely has the advantage of bearing more fruit in its youth, 
but it is at the expense of its growth. 

An olive truncheon, is a limb of the thickness of a mans arm, and 
from seven to ten feet in length, of new smooth wood, free from 
warts or scratches, the most vigorous and healthy scion of the tree 
it is proposed to reproduce. 

From this, it will be evident how difficult and costly it is, to ob- 



PLATE VII. — THE LECCINO. 

Fig. 37. Branch of the Leccino, showing its appearance, (re- 
duced.) 

Fig. 38. Twig with olives, (natural size.) 

Fig. 39. Longitudinal section of berry, showing the mesocarp, 
(natural size.) 

Fig. 40. Form of nut, (natural size.) 



THE OLIVE 



65 



taiu any number of truncheons that should unite all these qualities; 
especially as the tree has to be pruned, with this object in view, for 
three or four years beforehand. As may be imagined, a tree that has 
been robbed of three or four truncheons, is not improved in appear- 
ance, and it takes much time to cover up the space left bare. The limb- 
once cut off, should be placed in the holes prepared for them as 
soon as possible; so much so, that both acts should be performed 
simultaneously, but if through an unavoidable delay, owing to dis- 
tance of transportation, or some similar cause, the truncheon should 
have dried somewhat, soak it in water for a day or two, and then 
put it in wet earth to a depth of two, or two and a half feet. 
But after all said and done, do not fail to plant it as soon as possi- 
ble. Supposing everything to be ready, first throw a shovel full of 
well fermented manure into the bottom of the hole already pre- 
pared; this being the more necessary the less fertile the soil, over 
this an inch and a half of some of the best top soil, then place the 
truncheon upright in the center and cover with good top soil taken 
from another spot, press down with the feet, and leave a slight 
dej^ressiou about the plant, if there is a prospect of rain, or if it is pro- 
posed to give it water. After watering, or a rain, the ground which 
has settled should be replaced, and then heaped as high on the plant 
as possible. The warmer the climate, the more necessary this will 
be found. 

In the south of Spain, and Portugal, where this method is prac- 
ticed, it is customary to build up on the plant, a cover of mud to a 
height of five feet leaA'ing only one foot of it exposed, where it buds. 

The advantage of covering a plant in this way, is plain, as we 
know it evaporates its moisture, and having no roots to absorb with, 
the more sun and air it receives, the faster it loses the elements that 
are to help its growth. So truncheons are often seen with the 
upper part dead, and dry from the heat of the sun; then, they 
bud from below. When covered, this rarely happens. Half way 



66 



THE OLIYE 



up the mud cover, a little hole is made, through which to give them 
water during the first year. 

Where irrigation is practiced, they do not need to be covered; 
but otherwise even a layer of grass and weeds, to prevent the direct 
action of the sun and air on the bark of the truncheons, is of great 
use. The height which the truncheon should show above ground, 
should be forty to eighty inches, the greater, in the warmer climate, 
and the less, in the colder place. The growth of the truncheon is 
such, that it gives a crop in the third year ; whereas the cutting 
does not bear until from the sixth to the eighth, and then not so 
plentifully as the truncheon. But the olive tree from a truncheon does 
not root as well, and is never as vigorous, as that grown from a cut- 
ting. 

To grow truncheons, instead of despoiling and deforming the 
trees, is the much wiser course. For this purpose make a trench 
twenty inches deep. Select branches that will average more than 
two inches in the narrowest part, and cut them into lengths of 
twenty inches. Place these upright in the trench, one yard apart, 
and cover with earth. If on watering, or after a rain, the upper 
ends are uncovered, carefully cover them again, to protect them from 
the sun. Towards the end of s]3ring, the truncheons will sprout, and 
the thicker, cleaner, and newer they are, the more vigorous will be the 
shoot. 

As soon as .the young sprouts are seen, the ground should be 
spaded over, the earth carefully scraped away from the plants, and 
fresh earth added. In the beginning of July, the ground should be 
worked over, and again in the early part of August. In parts of the 
country where irrigation is necessary, they may be irrigated, but 
generally frequent cultivation, and freedom from weeds, is sufficient 
to insure a favorable growth. In the s]3ring of the second year, open 
the trench, uncovering the mother cutting. Sever at the neck of 
the plant all superfluous shoots. The aim should be, to leave one, 
two, or three, vigorous ones so distributed around the parent cutting, 



THE OLIVE 



r>7 



as not to interfere with each other. In the spring of the third year, 
again open the trench, and out off any sprouts that may have started 
on the mother cuttino;. Also, if the lower branches of the two or 
three shoots of the year before, interfere with cultivation, or are grow- 
ing out of proportion to the tree, prune them as may be necessary. 

In the month of March of the fourth year, the plants will be suf- 
ficiently advanced to serve as truncheons. Again the trench is un- 
covered, uutil the union of the truncheon with the wood originally 
planted, is visible. Seizing this, with a steady pull, tear it from the 
mother, and with it, will come away some roots, and part of the orig- 
inal bark and wood. These are most necesary to its j)erfect root- 
ing. We now have a truncheon, and it must be planted in the man- 
ner heretofore described. 

The original wood, from which there has been torn one, two, or 
three young trees, will put out fresh shoots immediately, and go on 
producing other trees, and the treatment must be the same as that 
already described. 




GRAFTS. 



The olive can be grafted in several ways ; two methods are the 
most appropriate — crown and shield grafting. In crown grafting 
the operation is performed when the buds are grown a third of an 
inch long. Cut horizontally the head of the stock, or the branches 
only of the second or third order, according to the age of the tree, 



68 



THE OLIVE 



at about eighteen inches from their spring. Then, cut through the 
bark to the wood, in a vertical line, about two and three-quarter 
inches long. 

Cut the lower part of the graft in a pointed form, with a notch on 
the upper part. Raise the bark of the stock, and introduce the graft, 
between the bark and the wood; surround with a bandage, and cov- 
er with mastic. This sort of grafting is used for old olive trees. If 
more than one is used, a clear space of three inches should be left 
between each. 



Fig. 2. Fig. 3 




f f. The bud selected. A. The Cut. 

f. g. g. g. f. Side view of bud. B. The bud inserted. 

H. The bud. C. The binding and securing of the bud. 

BUDDING OR SHIELD GRAFTING. 

The piece cut from the bark to form the graft is most frequently 
in the form of a shield. This piece of bark must have upon it, near 
its center, an eye or bud. 

These grafts, are especially used for young stocks, or branches 
from one to four years old, having thin, smooth, and tender bark. 
Shield grafting, with a dormant bud, is practiced towards the end 
of the summer, according to the vegetation of the subject. The 
head of the stock must not be cut off until the following spring, 
when it will be seen whether the graft bud has been successful. 

The following are the principal points to be attended to. 

1st — Cut from the olive tree a branch having some leaves, or eyes 
at its base, or buds well developed. Take off the leaves, leaving 



THE OLIVE 69 

only a small piece of the stem of one of them, to hold the shield by, 
between the fingers. Keep the grafts, or buds, when thus prepared, 
in a dark, cold, and damp place, until the time that they are requir- 
ed for placing upon the stock. 

2d — Make an incision in the form of the letter T, penetrating 
to the wood, and separate with the spatula, the two lips of the bark 
towards the top. 

3d — Separate the shield from its branch, in such a manner, as to 
take off with the bark, the smallest portion of the wood, preserving 
in every case, the green tissue behind the bud. Unless this be at- 
tended to, the success of the graft is impossible. 

4th — Slip this shield into the incision, between the bark and the- 
wood : then bring the edges of the bark together by means 
of a ligature, in such a manner, that the base of the bud presses 
closely to the wood of the stock. This is an essential point. 

5th — Sometime after budding, look at the buds, and slacken the 
bandages if they become too tight. 

6th — On the arrival of spring, if the buds have taken effect, cut 
off the stem or branches of the stock about three inches above 
the bud. This is done to stimulate the development of the bud. 

7th — Cut the head of the subject grafted the following winter. 
The first or crown grafting, is employed on the large trees from the 
Esterel to Genes. In Provence, Avignon, and Gard, shield grafting- 
is preferred. At Grasse, they graft the young trees at the age of 
five or six years, in spring time, when the sap mounts, and when the 
bark is easily detached. They choose the graft from the gourmand 
shoots of two years old, the wood Avell grown and bark smooth ; se- 
lecting those in which the eves are well marked. According to the 
size of the branch, or of the trunk of the tree, they place two- 
scions judiciously. The scions having been placed, the whole 
is enveloped with clay, and confined with a bandage. The best time is 
the spring, when the trees are always large and full of branches ; 
some branches are left ungrafted as ducts for the sap, the accu- 



70 



THE OLIVE 



mulation of which, at the shoots placed in the crown would be harm- 
ful. At Grasse, these branches are called des respirails, and are 
cut off or grafted the following year. 

In Bouche-du-Rhone, shield grafting is the most common ; it is 
now as in the time of Columella, greffe a Vempatre. 

Grafting on very young trees, is rarely profitable, not from 
any difficulty in the process, but because, as the roots require a 
long time to take hold of the soil, an abnormal disturbance of the 
sap occurs, and the tree sometimes makes a stunted growth. 

The Abbe Jamet says : — "I never graft before the sixth year. At 
" the time of gathering, I accompany the man in charge. I examine 
"the trees, and mark those, of which the shape, the barrenness, or 
" the variety does not suit me. The year following, fifteen or twenty 
" days after flowering, I place two shields upon each of the branches 
" forming the head of the tree. Above the graft, I girdle the 
"branch, and take off the bark. The object of this gird- 
" ling is to stop the ascending sap, and to bring it to the 
shoot and facilitate its starting. 

The branch above the graft may be left one or two years, accord- 
ing to the vigor of the subject. Its leaves and shade will be bene- 
ficial to the graft. 

The best time for winter pruning is that which follows frosty 
weather, and which precedes the first movement of vegetation. By 
early pruning, the sap is made to act upon the buds unfavorably sit- 
uated upon the tree, it brings, them out, and also developes latent 
buds upon the old wood. Thus, by early pruning, it is possible 
to prevent the tree being covered with naked stems. It may be ad- 
vantageous to wait even to the period when the shoots begin to 
lengthen upon trees that possess too much vigor, and which would 
not otherwise be easily put into a fruit bearing condition. 

Grafting in wet weather is to be avoided, as the tree is likely to 
run, a fine day in spring is the best. The new shoots are not gen- 
erally touched until the year following the lopping of the branch 



THE OLIVE 



71 



after the graft has taken. Manured and placed in good earth, the 
olive requires only three years to form after having been grafted. 

The grafts should be taken from that part of the tree which is 
opposite the mid-day sun. They are chosen from the shoot that 
would bear fruit the following year. 

Those who graft the young tree upon the trunk and not upon the 
mother branches, take the scions from the shoots which are about to 
flower. 

SUCKEES, KXOTS, LAYEES AND EOOTS. 

The knots, or knobs seen on the trunks of olives that have attain- 
ed any age, are caused by brushing off the suckers that put out on 
the trunk. The bark forms over the wound made, and a slight ex- 
crescence is raised, which persistently sends out further shoots, and 
the same process being repeated a multitude of times, the final re- 
sult is a knob, or egg, of varying size. These, cut from the tree and 
planted at a depth of from four to six inches, give birth to an innu- 
merable quantity of 3 T oung plants, and is the favorite mode of prop- 
agating in certain parts of Italy, having superseded that by cuttings 
altogether. 

The sucker is a developed egg or knob, having germinated while 
on the tree. 

These knobs should be cut from the tree with a sharp instrument 
and the wound carefully smoothed over and covered with clay or 
grafting wax. A mixture of cow-dung and clay make a cheap sub- 
stitute for the latter. But the weight of opinion is against this mode 
of propagation. The Avounds caused the tree are grievous and hard 
to be borne. They give an opening to the "Lupa" or rot which is 
ready to attack the olive on the slightest provocation. Only a doom- 
ed tree should be dismembered in this way. 

The suckers about the root of an olive may be laid down and cov- 
ered with earth and will give further plants. 

The underground portion of the olive tree is composed of two 



72 



THE OLIVE 



parts, quite distinct, the roots properly so called and which do not 
shoot of themselves, and the foundations formed of a ligneous mass 
of tubercles, from which spring the roots in one direction, and the 
stem in another. Pieces split from this woody mass of the size of 
the palm of the hand, and an inch and a half thick, jnanted four 
inches deep with the back uppermost, will give a great number of 
young plants. But so will the parent root if left in place. When 
from any cause whatever, a tree has been marked for destruction, if 
it is cut off below ground and covered with earth, it will send up 
quantities of new shoots which may be pulled off as young rooted 
trees, and their places will be many times supplied with others. 



PLATE VIII. — THEPUNTAROLO. 

Fig. 41. Branch of the Puntarolo, showing its appearance, (re- 
duced.) 

Fig. 42. Twig with olives, (natural size.) 

Fig. 43. Longitudinal section of berry, showing the mesocarp, 
(natural size.) 

Fig. 44. Form of the nut, (natural size.) 



(Consociation 



CHAPTER VII. 

" Marry the olive and the vine." 

The soil which suits the vine is also good for the olive. This is 
what is seen throughout the greater part of Italy; there they say 
the olive does not prosper in celibacy. The deep soils can well 
support both. Consociation offers the great advantage of getting 
some return from the soil during the lengthened youth of this tree, 
which when it has grown to a sufficient size, the vine plot com- 
mences to age, and, disappearing by degrees, leaves the olive sole 
occupant of the soil. When the olives grow to a large size, and are 
planted near to each other, or in places where the ground is poor, 
other crops are not usually grown. With these two exceptions, the 
ground under the trees is generally utilized. At Grasse and Nice, 
they associate together the olive and the fig, and other fruit trees; 
as also the vine. In such cases the trees are planted in rows, about 
twenty feet apart, and the intervening space is sown one year in 
beans, or maize, and the next year in corn. The Inspector General 
of the Government Plantations of France says: This system can- 
not be sufficiently applauded, both because, in many years of failure, 
all the interest of the capital in the ground would not be lost, and 
because the olive trees would benefit from the earth given to the 
other plants; and even, because the more distant the trees are 
planted in the rows, the more are they loaded with fruit, and pay 
better. 

Signor Cappi also says: This culture may very well exist, and 
has been used in various provinces of Italy, especially in vast plains, 
with excellent results. On plains they should be planted twenty- 
five feet apart, and not less than fifty feet between the rows if vines 
are cultivated. Experience, some say, has showii that the olive cul- 
tivated alone, in rich soil grows vigorously; makes each year a num- 
ber of new shoots, but gives little fruit, as the sap being too active to 

6 



i 



74 



THE OLIVE 



fix the blossom, is carried to the extremities, and the flower falls. 
To obtain good trees quickly, one should never sow underneath 
them at first, but however afterwards, to get good fruit it is advan- 
tageous to do so; but only then the year of the crop. Thus one 
should prune, manure, and cultivate to force shoots or young wood 
to bear fruit. 

The season following, sow under the trees to moderate the flow of 
the sap, stay the growth of wood, and cause the blossom to set. In 
an indifferent soil this would be hurtful, as there is never an excess 
of vegetation. However, in similar conditions, in place of sowing 
an exhausting cereal, they sow vegetables, beans, lupins or peas. 
Green crops, as manure, are often dug in, and thus the olive dur- 
ing summer, finds sufficient subsistence to help it to bring a crop to 
maturitv. 

In growing other crops with the olive, it derives benefit from the 
frequent labor that the ground receives in their cultivation, as it 
loves to vegetate in a soil often stirred and largely manured. Few 
trees to the acre will produce a much better result than many. 

The olive crop is a precarious one and therefore he will be wise 
who associates his olives with other fruits, that he may have a 
harvest. For level ground an acre can easily carry forty seven 
olives, forty seven fruit trees, such as figs, peaches, prunes, mulber- 
ries or whatever may be suitable to the neighborhood and three hun- 
dred and two vines, thus : 

11 22 33 44 

O X (. X © 



G x o 



X 



- 



G x o x G 

O— Olive Tree. o— Fruit Tree. x— Vine. 



THE OLIVE 



75 



Trees to be set out on the quincunx the olives to be forty-four feet 
apart one way and thirty the other. This will give a far better 
result than crowding an acre with over a hundred olives trees. 
The olive under favorable conditions is a prolific bearer but too 
much crowding stunts the trees and exhausts the soil. The result 
is seen in weak and puny trees that bear no fruit. The olive must 
have sunshine and ventilation and it cannot get it in an orchard 
where there are one hundred trees to the acre. For a few years all 
will go well, and then about the time that the trees should give a 
good return it will be found that the branches interlock and that 
the orchard forms so dense a mass of foliage that the sun cannot 
penetrate it, and half the trees will have to be taken out, and re- 
planted some where else, and there will be the loss of about five 
year's time resulting from cutting back well grown trees ; this would 
be in consequence of crowding on level ground, but on hilly land, 
where the olives rise in tiers, one above the other, an acre will 
xeadily carry eighty trees. 

The consociation of the olive with other fruits will prove benefi- 
cial from every point of view. The olive crop is an inconstant one, 
the natural tendency of the tree is to only bear heavily every other 
year, it has many enemies, and until the fruit has formed, nothing 
is assured. 

Too great heat at the critical period of blossoming may be fatal to 
the hopes of an abundant yield and varying seasons will give differ- 
ent results. The Italians have an expressive proverb which says : 

" If the olive buds in April, 
You will gather by the barrel ; 
If in May appear the buds, 
You will gather by measureful. 
But if it lingers until June, 
The harvest will be but a fistfull." 

Again, 

Golden is the olive of the early budding. 
Silver that which comes after, 
The late one is worth nothing." 



76 



THE OLIVE 



The earlier the olive buds, the earlier it flowers, the quicker the 
olives grow fat, the better they encounter the inclemencies of the 
season and the better secured is the product. 

Consociation pays because as the olive comes to full fruiting 
slowly, it offers a new mode of lessening the unproductiveness of the 
early years and of reducing the expenses of the olive orchard. It 
may endure only until the olive comes into bearing or may be per- 
manent. 

The question of consociation or not, dej)ends upon climate, soil 
and exposure. In very steep, stony, shallow ground, with a rocky 
subsoil, sandy or in any way arid soil, it is advisable to undertake 
only the cultivation of the olive, because the other plants would suc- 
ceed badly and would not pay for the necessary attention. 

On the other hand fertile and rather level lands permit the fruit- 
ful presence of other plants, while the olive enjoys greater space and 
light, both being indispensable elements to its prosperous life and 
copious production. Since the olive is more secure as to its crop,, 
south of its region as against climatic dangers, and to the north, runs 
greater risks of loss of crop because it matures late and the tree itself 
may suffer or even be killed by frosts, it follows that consociation in 
such countries (giving to the olive all the light) contributes to the 
more secure ripening of the fruit and to its greater production. In 
the case of loss of crop or trees, there is something left to the hus- 
band-man. Reasons therefore for the consociation of the vine are: 

1st — Vines come to fruit in the third year and to maturity in the 
fifth. This is an advantage from the side of expense and return on 
capital. 

2d — The vine can be planted with the same preparatory labor as 
the olive. 

3d — Cultivating the vine at least three times during the year, is 
an indirect benefit to the olive, the more so as the epochs of these 
labors occur at seasons opportune for both plants. 



THE OLIVE 



77 



4th — The heavy work of pruning and harvest can be done at dif- 
ferent times so that they do not interfere with one another. In fact 
the pruning of the vine may precede that of the olive and the vin- 
tage comes when the olive begins to turn. Thus the consociate cul- 
tivation of the olive and vine will enable one to keep the same lab- 
oring force right through the year and avoid the constant shifting 
of hands which is so great a drawback. 

5th — The olive and vine being so different in size, the tree only 
affects unfavorably the nearest vines. 

6th — Being both potash plants they prosper in the same land and 
are benefitted by the same manure. 

7th — If the consociation is temporary, the vines will gradually 
pass away by the time the olive, at thirty years, has reached its nor- 
mal development, but will have in the meantime contributed largely 
to pay the expenses of the place if they have not entirely done so, 
and if the consociation is permanent a certain number of vines are 
up-rooted and a broad belt left to olives. 



preparation o|? t^e 6[rounc| 



CHAPTER VIII. 

" O, dig a hole, and dig it deep." — Old Play. 

The selection of the spot for an olive orchard having been 
made, the surface should be cleared of all woody plants and roots,, 
and then plowed as deeply as possible. If the plowing can be done 
with the first rains, say in November, and the ground left exposed 
to the elements till planting time comes, which should be after all 
danger from frost has past, it will receive an atmospheric fertiliza- 
tion which will be so much gained. But let the plowing be deep, 
twenty inches if jDossible, remember that centuries may pass before 
it can be done again. Any expense incurred in this direction is 
money well laid out, and will pay for itself many times in opening 
the way for the perfect rooting of the future olive. 

On the other hand, shallow plowing and a dry season might well 
result in young olives casting their leaves and fruit, from the impos- 
possibility of the young rootlets penetrating the hard unbroken soiL 

The plowing finished, the holes for the trees are next in order,, 
these may be of various shapes, square, rectangular, and lastly the 
trench. 

Of the holes, the square is the best, and to obtain the very best 
result should be three feet deej), and three feet wide at the surface. 
If the ground in question has not at least a yard of soil, the olive 
will not flourish there, as when the tap root encounters an obstruct- 
ion it bends up and the lateral roots develope in its place, and as the 
growth of the tree is always equally jDroportioned between its root 
system and its branches, the obstacle encountered by the pivot roots 
becomes immediately apparent in the appearance of the tree. The 
stem, which corresponds to this root, ceases to grow with its pre- 
vious vigor and force. The trunk loses its smooth, ash colored 
bark, and its base is covered with a variety of protuberances, which 



THE OLIVE 



79 



bulge out and indicate the disproportioned circulation of the sap. 
So the appearance of a tree alone indicates whether the soil is a 
congenial one or not. But the straight stem, smooth, ash colored 
bark on the trunk, green bark on the branches, a round and ex- 
actly proportioned top is only to be expected from a tree raised 
from seed. 

Fig. 4. 




PLANTING OF THE YOUNG TREE. ONE METRE IN DEPTH. 

d. Layer of stones and sticks. 

e. Strata of earth upon which the roots rest. 
Strata surrounding the root system. 

c. Central part underlying the root, which should consist of well worked earth. 
g. The plant itself interred as it stood in the nursery. 



80 



THE OLIVE 



In the bottom of the hole put a layer of stones and branches mix- 
ed, in order that the drainage and ventilation may be perfect. In 
many dry soils, of course this would be entirely unnecessary, and in 
setting out an orchard on a large scale, would add very greatly to 
the expense, and is only indicated here in order to show to what 
perfection the transplantation may be carried. 

At the same time, we do not think that any money expended on 
these preparatory labors will be thrown away, but believe that the 
future will largely recompense them. Let then the layer of stones 
and branches fill the bottom of the hole to a depth of six inches, and 
on top of this, a layer of well aired good soil. If the soil is sticky? 
it is well to mix it with such mineral ingredients as ashes, sand, or 
lime. In loose soil clayey material should be used instead. In 
both cases it is advantageous to place under each plant a few shov- 
elfulls of old, well fermented manure, then the plant itself, and if 
water is to be conveniently had, five or six gallons can be used to 
advantage in settling the roots. The ground immediately below the 
roots should be composed of soft, loose earth mixed with manure, 
for this is the part first to embrace the young and tender fibers, and 
from which, they will radiate into the more compact earth, as they 
gather strength. When the planting of the tree is complete, a stake 
is driven by its side and secured to it by a cord, but to guard against 
injury to the delicate bark, a wisp of straw should be placed under 
the cord. 

Except where the soil is sandy and loose, or subject to persistent 
dryness, the plants should not.be set deeper than sixteen inches. 

It is shown by observation that the volume of a piece of ground 
worked over decreases one twelfth in a year, by the progressive di- 
minution of the porosity. Thus a hole dug to a depth of one yard 
with sewerage of eight inches, and covered evenly, would at the end 
of a year have sunk three inches, and the plant placed in the hole 
would have sunk proportionately. 

It follows then, that a plant placed in its accompanying sod, in 



THE FHLQE0TR1BUS OLEAE. 

Plate]X 

Fig .1 . 

. ■ o----^:. "r - • f mr 

. Tig. 7. 




PLATE IX. — THE PHLOEOTEIBUS OLEAE. 



Fig. 1. Portion of dry branch of olive A, B. a, excrescences 
formed by excrement and borings from wood of the year hanging from 
the openings of the galleries which the Phloeotribns dig out, at b, bb 
holes made going in. B to C bark stripped off, c, d, e, show galleries 
made by the Phloeotribus; c, gallery commenced showing niche 
enclosing eggs; d, two galleries dug by two females going in at same 
entrance flanked by laterals dug out by the larva?; e, two similar 
galleries of which some complete laterals show the chrysalides, 
because formed by the larva? which were the first to open it. 

Fig. 2. The galleries c, of previous figure enlarged; a, ingress; 
e, gallery in which female stays while excavating and depositing 
eggs; d, d, d, niches with larva? enclosed who have commenced to dig 
out the lateral galleries; e, e, which contain the eggs; b, remains 
short and without laterals because dug out by a male. 

Fig. 3. Branch of olive in crotch of which is seen a Phloeotri- 
bus at work digging a tunnel; on pulling him out, the hole is seen 
filled with borings and excrement. 

Fig. 4. Branch similar to preceeding showing Phloeotribus 
(enlarged,) in a nest covered with borings and excrement. 

Fig. 5. The egg (enlarged.) 

Fig. 6. The larva side view (enlarged.) 

Fig. 7. Head of larva, seen from above, (much enlarged) 

Fig, 8. Same head, side view. 

Fig. 9. Chrysalis with strip of wood from tree a, adhering. 

Fig. 10. Insect (enlarged.) 

Fig. 11. Antenna, (very much enlarged.) 

Fig. 12. Tibia and tarsi of hind feet, (enlarged.) 



THE OLIVE 



81 



level ground, will at the end of a year be three inches deeper than 
when put out. Planting at more than the ordinary depth will be 
injurious to the plant, and will often cause its death. For the per- 
fect development of the olive, the soil must be pervious to the air ; 
which is indispensable to the respiration of its whole organism. 

Experiments have shown how the development of the same plant 
can be retarded or advanced, by planting it alternately deep and 
shallow. From these experiences it is conclusive that to condemn 
the olive to too great a depth in the ground is a grave error. 

The rectangular hole of two feet long, and two feet deep, and a 
foot wide, will probably be the one commonly used in California, as 
it is much the cheapest. 

Instead of holes a continuous trench may be dug, not less than 
three feet in depth ; and the trees set out in it at the proper dis- 
tance apart. Here the tender roots encounter no obstacle, the 
trench giving them free play each way and the result is, an aston- 
ishing development of the young tree. These trenches have 
proved particularly good on side hills. When we reflect that the 
life of this tree that we are starting on its road, will cover centur- 
ies, any expense incurred in promoting its growth at the begin- 
ning seems slight in comparison. 

The wild seedling olive is unknown in California, but as the 
seed of the cultivated type almost invariably produces that of the 
wild, not many years will pass before these will begin to spring 
up on the hills about our valleys. The birds will be the dissem- 
inators. The writer has noticed the robin in particular. On cold 
winter days in the Santa Clara valley, this bird leaves the hills 
and appears on the Quito Olive Farm in great numbers, eating 
any fruit that offers itself, olives among others. The Spaniards 
are led to claim that the olive is indigenous to Spain because it is 
found growing wild on all their mountains, perhaps some future 
Californian will make the same claim for us, for the seed of the 
olive will certainly be spread far and wide in this way. 



82 



THE OLIVE 



The olive orchard should be plowed or cultivated at least four 
times during the year, but not to a greater depth than five inches, 
or the surface roots may be injured. 

As soon as the berries are picked which may be in December, 
January or February, the tree rests. Its labors have not been light 
in sustaining and nourishing its burden of fruit so long. As soon 
as it is relieved of its heavy load it begins to recuperate and pre- 
pare for the following May when it will blossom again. The or- 
chard should first be pruned and cleaned, and then plowed in order 
to give the trees the greatest possible assistance. 

To keep down the weeds, it will be necessary to plow again be- 
fore flowering time arrives, but on no account should any cultiva- 
tion be attempted while the olives are in flower, as the exhalations 
from the ground, caused by turning over the soil, are very prejudi- 
cial to the tree when in this condition. Until the flower has 
withered and fallen off and the new berry has formed, nothing 
should be done that would cause any emanations from the soil. 

The olive buds first, then flowers, fecundation becomes complete 
when the pollen comes in contact with the flower eggs, to which it 
communicates the power of freeing the embryo and transforming 
itself into seed. To judge whether this has successfully taken place 
or not, an inspection of the withered blossoms under a tree will dem- 
onstrate. If the corolla only has fallen, making a flat, star-shaped 
flower with a well defined hole in the center, all is well ; but if the 
pistil is attached to it, then fecundation has not taken place and the 
crop has aborted. This may happen from a variety of causes, and 
it is the critical period to the olive grower. Too great heat, a late 
frost, excess of rain, heavy winds, a lack of certain necessary ele- 
ments in the soil, or an excess of these, may singly or in com- 
bination, bring about this untoward result. The first, or too great 
heat at the time of blossoming, will probably be the source of 
greatest danger to the California grower. The olive in flower is 
said to be able to endure a temperature of one hundred and seven 



THE OLIVE 83 

degrees Fahrenheit, without receiving any damage. One hun- 
dred and ten degrees Fahrenheit proved injurious to the prospect 
of a crop on the Quito Farm in May, 1887, cutting down 
by two-thirds what promised to be an unusually large yield. It 
is the still, burning heat that does the harm. For this reason, 
rising ground or the middle hills are sought for the olive, where it 
may get the benefit of every passing breeze. 

It is a sign of good fructification when the tree covers itself with 
blossoms to its very summit, as it proves its capacity to nourish 
flowers so far from the trunk. The flowers having fallen and the new 
berries formed, the olive orchard should be cultivated for the third 
time, and still again in the early part oi September. The ground 
immediately about the trees should be dug over with the split spade 
or earth fork, taking care not to injure the lateral roots which lie 
near the surface. 

TRANSPLANTATION. 

Care should be taken in transplanting young trees to convey with 
them as much of their native earth as possible, some laceration of 
the delicate capillaries is unavoidable. A spade is the proper tool 
to use, If the tree is then kept for twenty, thirty, and even forty 
days in a dark place, it will be found to be exceedingly beneficial to it. 
The activity of the functions of the plant having been greatly di- 
minished in the leaves, the root system is correspondingly stimu- 
lated, and will produce new shoots, which by their absorbing power, 
will contribute greatly to the vigor of the young plant. The break- 
ing of the extreme ends of the roots, occasions no harm since the 
absorbent surface of the roots is confined to the parts provided with 
hairs, which are found in the middle of the young fibers. The ex- 
posure of the extreme ends or even cutting them, will not affect 
the freshness or vigor of the plant, but if the middle part be 
wounded, the injured fibers should be cut off immediately, in order- 
that the sound part may not suffer by contact. 



THE OLIVE 



From the cut, new and numerous roots will spring, and for this 
reason the top of the plant should be thinned out, in order to main- 
tain the equilibrium between the parts above and below ground. 
The pruning should be from the year old branches or two years old 
at most. The topping of the trees is proper in two cases only. 

First : When the root system, not having been properly protected, 
has been robbed in great part of the capillaries, which are in- 
tended for its nourishment from the soil. 

Second: When the plants have been crowded in the nursery, 
and have long slender trunks, and are likely to be exposed to high 
winds. 

In transporting the tree without sod about the roots, which is the 
•custom where any distance is involved, it is necessary to top the tree 
to offset the loss suffered by the roots. 

"A tree topped, 
Is a tree insured." 



pruning 



CHAPTER IX. 

"Quien quiere aceite, labra; quien quiere mas, estercola; y quien quiere mucho mas, cortat 
y poda a su tiempo." Vicente Payo* 

The olive should be pruned every two years, but the process will 
have to be varied with the species cultivated. Some varieties need 
the knife, others require it but little. Still it is necessary to prune 
the olive, but skill, knowledge, and attention to the wants of the= 
tree, are needful to secure the best results. 

Some of the old world saws embody this truth and in few words 
gives us the experience of centuries. 

"He who plows, hopes; he who manures, begs; but he who 
"prunes the olive, obliges it to produce." 

"For the olive and the oak, the spade below, and the hatchet 
"above." 

"Strip me and I will dress you, make me poor and I will make 
"you rich." 

No one would think of adopting these maxims literally in their 
treatment of the tree but their tendency is evident, 

TO SHAPE THE YOUNG TEEE. 

When the young tree has attained a, height of from four to 
five feet, and has a sufficient number of lateral branches, present- 

*He who wishes oil, cultivates; he who wishes much oil manures; He who wishes an abundance- 
of oil prunes at the right time. 



86 



THE OLIVE 



ing the appearance of Fig. 5, cut off the top at A in the early 
spring, leaving the three topmost branches on each side, and 
shorten the lower ones. Each branch is developed during the 
year as shown in Fig. 6, and is hen cut again at A, and 



Fig. 5. 




the shoots C and I) are shortened. The upper shoot B is started 
out by this process, and it appears the following year as in Fig. 7, 
and it is again cat at A. This causes the two upper shoots BB to 
develop ; and at the end of the year they appear as shown at AA 
in Fig. 8. This is their position at the fourth years pruning, and 
each of them is cut at B; and D is shortened, and C is allowed to 
develop. By this time the tree has a spherical or vase form, and 



88 



THE OLIVE 



exposes much surface to the sun, which is the object desired. The 
olive produces fruit on two years wood only. This point the 
primer should always bear in mind, and direct his efforts to multi- 
ply these shoots in order to increase production. 

The aim should be to distribute the sap equally throughout ; 
keep the extension of branches within proper limits, and give air to 
the interior. Take out the dead wood and fruitless branches, called 
"gluttons" because they take to themselves the best forces of the 
tree. Cut out those parts that are not sound or are subject to can- 
ker. Do not allow the branches to cross each other ; favor new 
shoots by lateral pruning when there are vacant places to fill. In 
Provence, contrary to the custom elsewhere, they prune their trees 
each year, keeping them near the ground. This practice besides 
rendering the fruit more abundant and fine, permits a more careful 
gathering by hand. The trees thus treated will not last so long it 
is true, but this inconvenience is largely compensated by the other 
advantages attending this mode of pruning. 

The olive has precisely the same mode of vegetation as the peach, 
with this difference only, that new shoots are easily formed from old 
wood. The branches and roots of a tree are proportional, contribu- 
ting mutually to the growth of each other, and therefore the one 
suffers if the other is cut. If the strong branches of a vigorous tree 
are pruned very long, the roots are strengthened, the said branches 
increased in size, the tree runs to wood and does not fructify. If on 
the contrary they are pruned very short, and the lesser branches 
taken off also, the tree is weakened and the roots with it. It is nec- 
essary to take off the lesser branches of a vigorous olive tree, and 
also the strong branches to a reasonable length, always with the 
idea of preserving the proportion between the roots and branches. 

The tree is nourished by its sap ; this commences to move with the 
increase of temperature in Spring, generally in March. Drawn from 
the soil by the roots, it circulates throughout the tree with increas- 
ing freedom as it approaches the extremities, where the tender twigs 



THE HYLESINUS 0 LEI PERDA. 



Plate X 




PLATE X. — THE HYLESINUS OLEIPERDA. 

Fig. 1. Small branch of the olive attacked by the Hylesinus at 
points a. and b, recognized by the hole through which the insect 
penetrated and by the reddish spots which show the locality of the 
galleries. 

Fig. 2. A small piece of the bark showing the inside work with 
principal gallery a, and the eggs in place b, (enlarged.) 

Fig. 3. A small piece of the wood stripped of bark showing the 
main gallery a, and the secondary galleries b, dug out by the larvae, 
(enlarged, i 

Fig. 4. The egg (enlarged.) 

Fi°\ 5. The larva (enlarged.) 

Fig. 6. The chrysalis (enlarged.) 

Fig. 7. The insect (enlarged.) 



THE OLIVE 



89 



present less opposition to its course than the older wood. Having 
reached the leaves, the lungs of the tree, it undergoes some change 
in its properties and then returns to the roots again ; so we have the 
ascending sap and the descending sap. 

The descent of the sap can be verified and turned to advantage. 
It is claimed that the tree can be compelled to bear fruit whether it 
will or no. Having selected a fruit branch, ring the bark near its 
base, making a perfect ring whose ends meet, A double-bladed 
knife with the blades about half an inch apart is the proper instru- 
ment to use. The descending sap will be forced into fruit and the 
} T ield of that particular branch will be in marked contrast to its 
neighbors. The upper side of the ring will exude sap and it will 
finally swell into a circle there showing its desire to come down. It 
is claimed that this ringing of the bark of minor branches can be 
done annually without any detriment to the tree. It will be better 
to select horizontal branches, as without the bark and with a weight 
of fruit, vertical branches are apt to be broken off by the wind. 
But as much is required from a tree by this process, so, more than 
usual care must be expended on it in cultivation and manuring. 
The tendency of a tree is to reach the height of its species, and as 
only the vertical branches are useful for this purpose, the sap al- 
ways tends to nourish the upright branches at the expense of the 
horizontal and lower ones. 

It is necessary to avoid j)runing too long, which would carry the 
sap to the extremities ot the branches to the detriment and destruc- 
tion of the center. On the other hand too short pruning: would 
force the sap into a small number of buds that would be found on 
the young branches and flowing back to the old, would result in 
false wood, that is, branches out of place and contrary to nature. 
If one side of a tree grows with too much vigor the strong branches 
should be pruned short but the feeble ones left long in order to en- 
courage the sap to flow into them, and on the other hand the re- 
verse should be done with the feeble side, the weaker branches 



7 



90 



THE OLIVE 



should be cut off, leaving only enough for appearance sake, and the 
stronger ones pruned long. 

The action of the sap on the buds of a vertical branch is in pro- 
portion to their distance from the base of that branch. So the new 
shoots produced by the buds of a pruned branch will be stronger 
the nearer they are to its base. But if a branch is bent over, or 
arched, the bud in the highest position will produce the strongest 
germ, and the rest will be weaker the nearer they approach the ex- 
tremity. In horizontal branches the case is different. The buds on 
the upper side are generally stronger than those nearest the ground. 
So, if the last bud on a branch is on the lower side, and the next to 
the last on the upper, the latter will be the stronger. 

All branches that grow strong where they should be weak, and 
vice versa, are contrary to nature and should be cut off. The leaves 
have a powerful influence over the quantity and movement of the 
sap. This is augmented or diminished in proportion to their num- 
ber. If an olive is robbed of its leaves, the flow of the sap is check- 
ed and the fruit falls. So where a tree has an excess of vigor, it 
may be contained within more reasonable bounds by thinning out 
the leaves. 

The wild olive tree, or the tree from seed, if never transplanted, 
its tap root undipped, is |)erfect]y proportioned, its stem is straight, 
its bark smooth, its branches arch in beautiful equality, making a 
perfectly formed crown. But in the cultivated tree, the tree from 
a cutting, the tree that has already felt the knife, the order of nat- 
ure has been disarranged and the tree, far from making a regular 
growth, if left to itself, will often take a most uncouth and ill-pro- 
portioned shape, and in appearance alone calls for the pruning knife. 

The first six branches left on a young tree, three on each side, 
become the principal or primary branches of the tree, from these 
grow others called the secondary which in turn produce those of the 
third order. From these spring a multitude of small branches and 
twio;s of one, two and three vears of age. Those of two and three 



THE OLIVE 



91 



years are the fruit branches, those of one year will bear the follow- 
ing season. 

The lower and horizontal branches produce the fruit in an olive. 
So a very general rule for pruning would be to preserve all lateral 
branches possible, with a due regard to the proportion of the crown, 
and to cut away those that are perpendicular to the trunk. The 
branches called "gluttons" are peculiar to the cultivated tree and 
need to be cut away, as they merely rob the plant of just so much 
vitality, without any compensation whatever. The glutton is a de- 
generated fruit branch, or one that appears where a fruit branch 
should be. They may be recognized by the speed with which they 
grow, by the broadness of their base, and by the appearance of the 
bark which, though green, is not smooth and shining, but rough and 
seamed. In shape also they are not rounded, but flattened on one 
side or the other. The color of the bark on the lower side is like- 
wise of a dark brown. These distinctive characteristics are conse- 
quent to the over abundant flow of the sap, which the glutton draws 
to itself. 

Though every two years is generally considered often enough to 
thoroughly prune an olive, there is abundant work for the knife 
each year after the crop is gathered, in taking off the dead, weak, 
.and sickly branches, to the end that the sap may go to fruit, and 
not be obliged to keep useless wood in life The tree so treated will 
be better able to resist frost, will bloom and yield more heavily, and 
its olives will contain more oil than do those of one that does not 
receive this care. 

The olive is exceedingly subject to a species of dry rot, and un- 
skillful pruning may actually cause it. 

Branches should be cut perpendicularly to the trunk, and from 
the lower side to the upper, as otherwise, in foiling, a strip of bark 
is apt to be carried away and a grievous wound caused to the tree. 
The cut should never force the bark out but always press it in. 

It is better to avoid taking off large limbs, as the surface exposed 



92 



THE OLIVE 



by the stump of the branch is a source of clanger to the tree. The 
larger this surface, the more difficult for the bark to close over it,, 
and like injuries to the human body, unless the wound is thorough- 
ly healed, it may cause the death of the patient. For this reason, 
if the cut is made perpendicularly to the tree, it presents less sur- 
face for the sun and rain to corrode, and for the fatal rot to take 
hold of, and finally eat out the heart of the tree. The cut should 
be made as cleanly as {possible, and some of the wood scooped out 
in order to help nature cover it again with the bark. The whole 
should be covered with grafting wax or a mixture of cow-dung and 
clay. 

If the olive is pruned while the sap is rising, or still worse while 
in flower, each branch lopped off is a mortal stab, a wound through 
which the tree will loose its life blood. The sap will run heavily 
for some days, especially if they are damp and rainy, no time being; 
afforded nature to close the outlets made with the pruning knife. 

The tree will have lost, to no purpose, that which might have 
nourished it, its vigor will be observed to diminish from that time 
forth, and little by little it will dry up and die. 

Thus the very great importance of early pruning is inculcated, in 
order to s;ive time for the closing of the cicatrices before the risimr 
of the sap in March. 

Experience shows that an olive, although it may not have been 
pruned in many years, and has not strength to put out new shoots,, 
will flower and fructify every year. But in the majority of instances 
the flower does not set, or if the fruit forms it soon falls off. All 
this because the sap canals in the branches are obstructed, if not ob- 
literated, and the tree cannot receive sufficient nourishment to main- 
tain its produce. 

On the other hand, if a tree is obssrved to make wood heavily,, 
and to grow barren and give no berries, it is a sign that it has been 
over pruned. Such cases are rare, but when they occur the remedy 
is to make the tree fast for a while, neither cultivate, nor fertilize 



THE OLIVE 



93 



nor prune it, for several years, when the good effect of this treat- 
ment will be apparent. 

The top of an olive, the parts to which the sap flows with most 
abundance and activity, should be considered as a vigorous tree, 
while the lower part which receives less, as a weak tree. So the 
primer should take off the strong upper branches and leave the les- 
ser ones, and reverse the process with the lower part, lopping off the 
puny branches and leaving the more vigorous. 

To prune in winter at a period of frost is dangerous. The limbs 
are exceedingly brittle at this time, and break off at the slighest 
provocation. 

When the tree is provided with sufficient branches to clothe it, 
the real work of the pruner begins, which is to oblige it to bear 
fruit. To open a tree to sun and air is not to strip it of all shade. 
Its leaves are necessary to prevent the scorching of tender bark and 
young leaves by the sun. The variety should indicate the treat- 
ment. The Spanish Manzanillo, which has been planted to some 
extent in California is sparse of leaf and requires the knife only to 
a limited degree, and then principally in cleaning rather than prun- 
ing. All pruning that is ill timed or out of season does harm, and 
may be an actual drawback by obstructing and impeding the natural 
flow of sap. Still the olive with the tremendous strides that its vege- 
tation makes, really demands the knife. If left to itself its center 
becomes a mat of cris cross branches, its growth ceases, and it falls a 
prey to a variety of diseases. There are two classes of branches 
that the olive should be deprived of : 

First, the irregular, the unfruitful, the diseased, the dead or 
dying. 

Second, all useless branches, over and above what the tree is able 
to carry, even though they should be the fruit branches of the fol- 
lowing year, and all the "gluttons." 

An olive tree that is heavily loaded down with branches or with 
fruit, is in a far from healthy state and by its appearance alone 



94 



THE OLIVE 



accuses the ignorance of its owner. If it has more branches than 
its strength is able to nourish, it becomes weakened, if more fruit, 
the latter appear poor, weazened, and half ripe. The last is damag- 
ing to the crop, but the first ruins the tree. 

THE TIME TO PRUNE. 

This must vary with the climate, soil and variety to be dealt 
with. It seems quite clear that no pruning can be done to advan- 
tage with the crop still on the trees, so it must be put off till the 
berries are gathered. This would give a period from October to 
March in which to carry on this necesssry labor. 

The year in which an olive orchard is thoroughly pruned is one 
of a light crop , the real benefit received from t his process, not being 
manifested until the following year. So in an orchard of any 
extent it would be better to divide it into halves or even thirds and 
to prune one of these parts each year. 

It is greatly to be desired that the clippings should not be allowed 
to lie about under the trees but should be immediately burnt on the 
spot. The tendency with us will probably be to save as much 
available wood as possible for future cuttings ; in that case such 
wood as is selected for this purpose should be disinfected and 
the remainder burned. In this way a multitude of noxious 
insects, adhering to the bark and leaves, are destroyed at once; and 
if not so treated, live to propagate, and reneAv their attacks on the 
trees in increased numbers. 

Pruning, as we have seen, consists in keeping the trees well 
shaped and in good disposition for bearing the most fruit. But it 
sometimes happens that more heroic remedies are demanded. 

When an olive orchard appears to be healthy in every respect 
but gives no fruit, it is owing to one of three causes. First; That 
the trees are too near together. Second; That the sap has been cor- 
rupted and makes only wood, and Third, that there are trees or 
plants in the vicinity that do them harm. 



THE OLIVE 



95 



When tlie trees are too near together, the ground is unable to 
sustain so many and it is necessary to transplant a portion of them. 
When this necessity is apparent every third, or every other tree 
will have to come out. This is likely to be the experience of many 
olive growers in this State. Fortunately the tree will bear it. 

The first stej3 is to cut the tree down to the crotch leaving four 
arms or stumps, the nucleus of the future primary branches of the 
new tree. It is then dug up with as much earth as possible and 
transported to the hole already prepared for it. In the spring of 
1888, fifteen hundred olive trees between ten and twenty years of 
age were thus transplanted on the Quito Farm, with a loss of only 
six trees. When the sap has become corrupted it is necessary to 
take off one of the primary or mother branches in order to check 
the tendency to make only wood. When the trees have been dam- 
aged by the proximity of others prejudicial to them, such as the pfne 
or the cork oak (the latter breeds a worm, about its roots which is 
fatal to the olive ) the weakly parts will have to be severely pruned. 
When they are attacked by an infinity of little shell like warts 
which spread up from the trunk to the lower branches, there is no 
remedy but to cut the tree down to the crotch and allow it to begin 
over again. But it must not be forgotten that this treatment is an 
extreme measure, and only to be availed of when all others have 
failed. 

The primary, or mother branches of an olive, are its arms, and 
are not to be lopped off without a good and sufficient reason. Al- 
though the tree may grow and flourish for many years, its new branch- 
es never will have the strength and exuberence of their predecessors. 

That one of these branches appears to be ailing, is not cause 
enough to cut it off. Manuring and cultivating about the tree may 
give it all that it needs. Watch it till spring, and then if it fails to 
flower, it had better be condemned. 

Thus we have seen that in pruning there are three different de- 
grees, the cleaning, or light pruning ; the pruning itself, and the 



96 



THE OLIVE 



more severe measure of cutting back. It is necessary to clean up 
the trees with the knife after the crop is in, every year, say in Jan- 
uary or February, and if the operation is carried a little further, and 
the tree is really pruned every year, it will be found advantageous. 

If the regular pruning is deferred to periods of two or three years, 
the wounds given the tree have to be so much the larger, and are so 
much the more difficult to recover from, or detract so much from 
the force of the tree. Then also, the season after a full pruning is 
one of a very light crop, making a very heavy crop the second year. 
This results in making either a very expensive crop to gather, that 
is if it is done carefully, or if not, by being done hurriedly, the 
branches are broken and damaged, and the prospect of the next 
years fruitage is destroyed. 

The olive is sometimes called a biennial, but a moments reflection 
must convince anyone familiar with the tree, that it is an annual. 
Does it not make a yearly effort to flower and fruit ? Then encour- 
age it and the result will be an annual crop. Annual pruning will 
give a moderate crop every year, will distribute the labor of prun- 
ing and harvesting more evenly, and will be most advantageous to 
the trees. 

Light pruning necessitates heavy manuring in order to success- 
fully carry the excess of wood and branches. Real scientific prun- 
ing can be safelv said to be almost unknown. There are more hum- 
bugs in this branch of horticulture, than in any other. Because a 
certain line of treatment may be desirable in a given locality, it 
does not follow that it is so in another. Certainly a very undesir- 
able arrangement would be that the pruner should have the wood, 
as he then sets to work and makes all he can, utterly regardless of 
the result to the trees. 

Successful pruning is founded upon the following propositions : 

First : That the olive fruits on two years old wood only. 

Second : That the flowers do not develop except when exposed 
to the sun for a number of hours of the day. 



THE OLIVE 



07 



Third : That the horizontal are the fruitful branches, and the 
vertical branches are sterile. 

Fourth : That too many branches in fruit results in a poor 
crop and over taxes the tree. 

Fifth : That the pruning should vary according to the variety. 

Sixth: That the soil, exposure, and altitude, all affect the growth 
and fructification in a different manner. The richer soil can sup- 



FIGr. 9. 




THE PINE OR COXE SHAPE. 

port more vegetation, and hence, in such soil, the tree will require 
only light pruning, while on a poorer soil, fall pruning is necessary 
including even the horizontals, which have borne fruit some years 
back. 

Trees with a southern and eastern exposure can be allowed to 
grow higher, than those with a northern and western exposure, as 
the outlook is warmer. 



98 



THE OLIVE 



Trees on the plain can be permitted to grow taller than those on 
the hills, in order to throw them open to all the air and sun possi- 
ble. On the other hand, those on the hills are kept lower, so that 
they may receive the reflected heat and escape the wind and its 
drying effect. 

The olive if kept low will have more vigor than if allowed to 
grow high, but do not oppose the nature of the tree too much. If 
it is of a variety that attains a great stature, to a certain extent it 
must be allowed to have its own way. 



FIG. 10. 




THE BASKET OE GOBLET SHAPE. 



The pendant branches which guard it from the heat of the sun, 
should be preserved as much as possible. WTien a tree has jDroduc- 
ed heavily, the horizontal, or fruitful limbs, should be pruned to a 
certain extent. 

A good rule for a well-pruned tree is, that one should be able to 
put the hand into the interior of the tree without holding off the 
other branches. 



THE OLIVE 



<J'J 



The olive is given four different shapes: 

The natural, or uncorrected form. 

The Pine or Cone shape. 

The Basket or Goblet shape. 

The Umbrella shape. 
The objections to allowing it to grow at will are, that it grows too 
high, its upper branches are mere " gluttons," or suckers of sap, 
which rob the lower, or fruitful part of. the tree, of what might re- 
sult in well developed fruit : that the sun and light are kept out, 
the principal agents of fructification, resulting in the fruit being 
found only on the outside of the tree, where the sun and light have 
access to it. Xeglected in this way, the tree finally, tired of its ef- 
forts, refuses to give a crop oftener than every alternate year. 

The Pine or Cone shape is better, but the best form, and almost 
the only possible one for large trees, is the Basket or Goblet shape. 
This exposes the largest surface to sun and air. The Umbrella 
shape is the worst of all, as it can only be achieved by directly op- 
posing the habits of the tree. The round well-opened crown will 
be the most natural way to shape trees of small size. 

The character of the soil must be taken into account in fixing 
the height and forming the crown of a young tree. In a poor and 
arid soil, it will be best not to make the trunk higher than from 
three to four feet, as in such a soil, the limited nutritous qualities 
will, with difficulty reach its branches, if placed too high. On the 
other hand, if the soil is rich, the crown may be placed from five to 
six feet from the ground. 



CHAPTER X. 

Macbeth. "What ! will the line stretch out to the crack of doom!" 

Macbeth, Act iv., Scene i. 

The writer regrets the necessity of introducing any new pests to 
his readers, but if we are still spared the visitation of some, time in 
his course may bring them to us. 

The olive is subject to a diversity of maladies, of which some are 
derived from the action of insects and parasitic plants, others, from 
meteorological influences, and still others, from improper methods 
of cultivation, such as excessive or defective nutrition. 

The insects which are most harmful to the olive are the following: 



COLEOPTERA— Beetles. 

Apion Vorax 
Mecinus circulatus 
Phloetribus oleae 
Hylesinus oleiperda 

Polycaon confertus Tivig borer 

HEMIPTERA— Bugs, Lice. 

Psylla olivina 

Coccus oleae Black scale 

Lecanium oleae Black scale 

Cisticoccus pollinii 

Trips oleae Olive louse 

Aspidiotus Conchiformis Apple scale 

Asjndiotus Raj:>ax Greedy scale 

Aspidiotus Perseae. Red Bay scale 



THE OLIVE 



101 



HYMENOPTERA- Saw Flies, Wasps, Bees. 

Cynips oleae 
Pteromalus quad rum 

LEPIDOFTERA— Moths. 

Prays oleellus Olive moth 

DIPTERA— Flies. 

Dacus olea (Hive fly 

Of these insects, the most dangerous are the Twig borers, the 

Psilla, the Moth and the Fly; the scale insects and the olive louse 
come next. 

APION VORAX. 

Among the very small insects which damage the olive there arc 
three curculions, two of the Apion genus and a third of the Mecinus. 

The first of the Apion kind, has the antennas, eight-jointed; the- 
first joint is long and conical, the second a trifle shorter, the third 
still shorter than the second and the remaining five are very short, 
gradually broadening towards the extremities into a solid pointed 
club. The rostrum, cylindrical and arched, jaws short, eyes lateral,, 
protruding and round. Thorax conical, body curved and convex, 
compressed anteriorly. 

Winged, shell very small and pointed, shield wing ovoid, larger 
at the base than the thorax, jaws elongated and truncated, femora 
puffed out, tarsi spongy beneath, with the first two joints conical, 
penultimate expanded, heart-shaped and bifurcated, the last cylin- 
drical, enlarged at the extremity and furnished with two hooks. 

The insect is about half an inch in length, body blackish, thorax 
gray on upper part, shield wing ridged with blackish green, sjmrsely 
sprinkled with dirty white hair, femora deep yellow, tarsi gray. 

The other Apion differs from the one described, by having the 
first joint of the antennas somewhat longer, the second shorter than 
the first, and the other six so short as to be almost globular ; the 
rostrum less arched, the hind legs having a sort of stinger or tooth, 
The last joint of the tarsi rather long and cylindrical, with the feet 



102 



THE OLIVE 



very close together. It is entirely black and sparsely sprinkled 
with whitish hair, and is about half an inch in length. 

The third cureulion, the Mecinus Circulatus has the antennae in- 
serted in the middle of the rostrum or proboscis. The antennae is 
five-jointed, the first very long and conical, the others transversal 
and short, the club oval and nearly solid. Rostrum not very 
long, strong, slightly inclined, cylindrical and not dilated at the ex- 
tremity. Body oblong, cylindrical and winged. Thorax cylindri- 
cal and much compressed in front. Shield triangular, paws or feet, 
hard and inserted very near together. The shield wing elongated 
and cylindrical. The tarsi spongy beneath the first two joints, tri- 
angular, penultimate expanded and the last one elongated and 
cylindrical. 

This insect is a trifle more than one-twelfth of an inch in length. 
Chestnut colored with stripes of a lighter shade along the edges of 
the shield wings and about the head. The feet are dark, as are also 
the tarsi. 

The three above described curculions in their last stage attack 
the buds of the tender branches, and gnaw the shoots at the forks, 
digging a nest in which they conceal themselves. Here the female 
deposits her eggs and the resulting larvae imitate the habits of the 
Phlcetribus whose description follows. 

PHLCETEIBUS OEEJE. 

{See Plate IX.) 

The egg (Fig. 5) of this insect, is oblong in shape and of a yel- 
lowish white color, and a little over an hundredth of an inch in di- 
ameter. 

The larva (Fig. 6, 7, 8, ) at its greatest size is an eighth of an inch 
in length, is oblong and soft, with callous head ; body composed of 
fourteen rings, one cephalic, three thoracic, and ten abdominal of a 
dirty white color, with reddish jaws: the palpi, short and small, the 
antennae just visible, with a considerable enlargement near the mar- 



THE OLIVE 



103 



gin of the fore part of the head, the eyes scarcely discernible, plac- 
ed behind the insertion of the jaws, the thorax fuller than the rest 
of the body, the upjDer thorax a little larger than the next two rings 
taken together, more convex and without the transversal wrinkles 
of the abdominal rings. 

The chrysalis (Fig. 9) ovoid, oblong, with head inclined towards 
the breast, shield wing fluted and embracing the abdomen at the 
sides, the feet exposed and drawn up on the ventral part of the body. 
Antenna? inserted in the front of the head passing below the eyes 
and the sides of the thorax, folding under in such a way that the 
end of the proboscis or club reaches to the fore feet. It is a dirty 
white in color with reddish eyes and jaws. 

This insect is distinguished from the Hylesinus principally by the 
antennas of nine joints. The first six are simple, the last three are 
dilated into a three-bladed club (Fig. 11). The body is convex and 
oval, and of a blackish brown color, and covered with an ashy yel- 
low down. Antennae and tarsi deep yellow, upper thorax broader 
than it is long, and unequally speckled; the shield wing is over twice 
as long as it is wide, rounded at the extremities and covering exact- 
ly the abdomen with nine lengthwise flutings delicately speckled ; 
the feet robust and rather short, the femora of a brilliant black in 
color. 

The Phlcetribus count two generations. 

FIEST GENERATION. 

In the autumn and winter each insect hides itself in a nest dug 
in the forks of the bearing branches (Fig. 3, 4). In the first days 
of spring, the insects abandon the nests to mate, after which they 
assault the dead branches, where the bark is very smooth, and dig 
a trench in which to deposit their eggs, (Fig. 1, 2,) gnawing oblique- 
ly first the bark and then the ring of the wood until they have a 
road from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch in width, they then re- 
trace their steps, following always the ring of the wood. The female 
now commences to deposit her eggs singly to the right and left, 



104 



THE OLIVE 



forming for each a niche which is enclosed by a partition made of 
bits of wood agglutinated with saliva, and in twenty or thirty days, 
from thirty to thirty-two eggs are deposited. 

Sometimes two females will enter at the same aperture and after 
the first part of the gallery is completed will bore in opposite direc- 
tions, often taking the form of a T (Fig. 1. e.) or a Y (Fig. 1. d.) 

The working of the insect is manifested by a small tumor or 
windgall resembling soap foam which issues from the holes made by 
them on entering. These excrescences are composed of excrement 
and fibres of the wood mixed with salivarv fluid. The eeffs hatch 
in fifteen days from the time they are deposited. The larvae 
nourish themselves from the fibre of the wood boring secondary tun- 
nels, the first perpendicular, with parallel ones between, resembling 
much the reeds of an organ (Fig. 1. e.) 

The greatest length of a gallery or tunnel never exceeds three 
quarters of an inch and is less than one-twelfth of an inch in 
diameter. The number of the lateral tunnels are not usually more 
than twenty on the same line or thirty on two lines. When the 
female has finished depositing her eggs she crawls to the external 
orifice of the gallery and dies. 

At the end of thirty or forty days the larva having reached the 
maximum stage of development, bores into the bottom of its own 
gallery, an oval niche (Fig. 1. e.) in which it remains immovable 
and without food for eight or ten days. From this stage it passes 
into that of the chrysalis casting its abdominal appendage. At the 
end of another ten days (Fig. 10) the chrysalis becomes a perfect 
insect which proceeds to gnaw the new wood of the tree, and the 
bark about its cell, emerging according to the season, in April or 
May. It flutters for a short time about the tree and then settles 
down, and bores a hole at the fork of a bearing or blossoming 
branch, which being deprived of its necessary nutriment soon 
languishes and dies. In a few days the mating takes place and 
about the first of June the boring of the tunnels for the depositing 



THE PSILLA. 



Plate XI 




PLATE XI.— THE PSILLA. 



Fig. 1. An olive twig full of blossoms, a, a, shows the cottony 
material deposited by the Psilla enclosed therein. 

Fig. 2. The egg (enlarged.) 

Fig, 3. The larva (enlarged.) 

Fig. 4. The chrysalis (enlarged.) 

Fig. 5. The insect, seen from above (enlarged.') 

Fig. 6. The insect, side view (enlarged.) 

Fig. 7. The head, front view (enlarged.) 

Fig. 8. The antenna (enlarged.) 



THE OLIVE 



105 



of the eggs and rearing the young, follows, as has been heretofore 
described. 

THE SECOND GENERATION. 

The offspring of this second generation appear about the last of 
August and first of September, and prepare a nest as did their 
predecessors, in the bearing boughs of the tree, where they pass the 
autumn and winter preparing for reproduction in the coming spring. 

The damage from the Phloetribus is considerable. Those of the 
first generation destroy the blossoms; and those of the second destroy 
the fruit, as they always attack bearing branches. The drying up 
of the leaves and fruit on the tree may usually be traced to these 
insects. Since they are reproduced only in the dry branches or 
those which are perishing, the best method to impede or diminish 
their propagation consists in keeping the trees perfectly free from 
decayed limbs. As soon as a limb shows signs of languor it should 
be removed and burned. 

HYLESIXES OLEIPEEDA. 

{See Plate X.) 

This injurious insect is designated by various names in as many 
localities. In organization and habits it bears a close resemblance 
to the Phloetribus. Indeed the egg, larva, chrysalis and insect are 
nearly identical in form and size. (Fig. 4, 5, 6, 7.) 

The larva in this case being a trifle larger and the antennae of 
the insect having eleven joints instead of nine. The fundamental 
color of the insect is lighter than that of its thorax. The body is a 
twelfth of an inch in length. Before the middle of July the 
Hylesinus has reached its perfect development, and from this time 
on, its methods are precisely those of the Phloetribus, and its treat- 
ment should be the same. 

THE POLYCAOX COXFERTUS. 

This insect is the common twig borer of California, and similar 
to that found on the oak tree. It attacks the olive early in April, 



8 



106 



THE OLIVE 



boring in the forks of the young wood. If discovered in time it 
can, to a great extent, be gotten rid of by shaking the trees both 
night and morning. The Polycaon is not a very dangerous pest, 
although, it causes more or less injury to the tree, which may result 
in the loss of several of the minor branches. 

PSYLLA OLEiE. 

(See Plate XL) 

The egg of the psylla is spheroidal in shape, and of a diaphan- 
ous white color, a little over a hundredth of an inch in diameter. 
(Fig. 2.) 

The larva (Fig. 3) is a depressed ovoid, oblong ; the head bi-fes- 
tooned in front, the last abdominal ring is very much larger than 
the others. It is rather soft and of a greenish white color, the eyes 
red, the extremities of the antennae and tarsi, black. It is com- 
pletely covered with a cottony substance which is thick and long 
on the abdomen, and falls behind in a fringe. 

The chrysalis (Fig. 4) resembles the larva in its general appear- 
ance, differing from it in the shield wing, which is oval and ridged, 
covering the sides of the abdomen, greenish in color, with last ab- 
dominal ring brown or nearly black, the shield wing of a yellow 
brown color. The insect (Fig. o, 6) has a wide head, triangular in 
shape, the upper part curved in, and square at the corners, with a 
deep scallop nearly bi-secting the lower part, the eyes oval, placed 
at upper corners of the head, the antennae (Fig. 8) six jointed ; the 
last one terminating in two short bristles, the upper thorax very 
short, the lower thorax large, convex, twice as long as it is wide, 
and nearly hexagonal. Upper wings or shield wing, oval, rhom- 
boidal, much longer than the abdomen and meeting in a sort of 
roof at the upper margin of the skull ; a sinew, starting from 
the point of the shoulder, is visible, which bi-sects it. The lower 
wings are shorter than the upper ones. Abdomen small terminat- 
ing in a blunt point, and in the female provided with a distinct 



THE OLIVE 



107 



borer. The feet are short and robust, and the head is of a light 
o-reen color. 

The Psvlla counts two generations which succeed each other in 
the spring, during the evolution of the blossoms. At the com- 
mencement of the warm season some of the insects die, while others 
of both sexes remain through the summer. During the autumn 
and winter they seek shelter on the under part of the leaves, or 
stalks of the tender shoots, and shield themselves there as best they 
may from the storms. 

As soon as the olive blossoms in the spring, the mating of the 
Psvlla takes place, and the female deposits her eggs on the flowering 
branches, enveloping them with a cottony material. The larvae 
.soon appear, separating themselves at once from the cottony cover- 
ing, and attacking the blossoms from which they draw their 
aliment. In twenty days from hatching, they transform themselves 
into perfect insects. In the warmer localities the Psvlla appears 
about the middle of April, but in very forward seasons it frequently 
happens that the second generation is at work by the last of that 
month. The Psylla of the first generation commence the work 
of propagation at once by attacking fresh branches, and continuing 
without stoppage, till the first of July. A part of the insects then 
die, whilst others survive until the succeeding spring. The larva 
and the chrysalis prefer remaining in the same place; when 
molested they move with difficulty, and even the insect when dis- 
turbed will neither hop nor fly with much agility. 

This insect nourishes itself by sucking the honey of the blossoms. 

The blossoms attacked by it either wither away, or are slow of 
development, and produce few olives, and these few of a poor quality. 

The early spring rains, if followed by high winds, have a ten- 
dency to dislodge the cottony substance containing the eggs or 
larvae, and many of them perish in this way, but the radical 
remedy for their distinction is to cut away the infected branches, 
although this method is both difficult and costly. All branches 



108 



THE OLIVE 



pruned away should be burned at once. Another way is to spray 
the tree, of course before it is in blossom, either with a solution of 
whale oil soap, and lye, or still better, use high fire test kerosene, 
mixed with ten times its volume of water.* 

COCCUS OLEAE. 

(See Plate XII.) 

The characteristics of this insect are the following : 

The egg is orange color, oblong-ovoid in shape (Fig 4). Larva, 
(Fig. 5, 6,) which hatches in fifteen days from deposit of egg, is 
very agile in movement, body a depressed ovoicl-oblongf composed 
of eleven rings; one, cephalic, three thoracic which are the largest, 
and seven abdominal short ones. The antennas silky and nine 
jointed, (Fig. 12), the first of which is short and thick, the second 
very small and the third is the largest of all. After the last ab- 
dominal ring there is a wedge shaped appendage and from the j)os- 
terior angles of this ring start two bristles as long as the abdomen. 

The tarsi which forms almost a continuation of the tibia have two 
joints, the last of which has two small claws and two filaments, end- 
ing in buttons. The outlines of the body are fringed with short 
hair, general color pale yellow, the eyes brown. 

When the first shedding takes place the chrysalis becomes fixed 
and adherent. The body gradually extends iself and the caudal fil- 
aments drop away. The figure and transformation varying accord- 
ing to the sex. The male chrysalis after the first moulting has the 
form of an ellipse, with a ridge running lengthwise the' centre of the 
back, w r ith two other ridges crossing it at right angles. This length- 
wise ridge is cut off square near the head and from it spring two 
other smaller ridges which terminate in eyes. The rings of the body 
are indistinct, the margins are spread out like a plate, they are 
rounded at the bottom and lightly fastened together. The antennas 

*Kerosene is given the preference as a wash for olive trees, but care should be taken that the quality is 
first-class. It should be carefully experimented with before being used, in order to see if it will hold the 
water in solution, for if it does not, it may result in killing the trees. See Mr. Ellwood Cooper's relation of 
his experience, before the Fruit Growers' Convention, held in Santa Barbara, April 12, 18S8.. 



THE OLIVE 109 

and feet are not visible from a back view. Elevated portions of the 
body are reddish colored, the expanded portions yellow, and the 
eyes black. 

After some days the second shedding takes place. When the 
chrysalis has reached its full development it is a little more than a 
twelfth of an inch in length. Then conies the last transformation, 
the shell bursts and the perfect winged creature appears. (Fig. 8.) 

The female chrysalis differs from the male by having a wider 
body, and the lateral posterior lobes undivided. It is agile and ac- 
tive. The antennae and feet extend beyond the margin of the body 
but in repose are drawn in and cannot be seen from a back view. 
The segmentary divisions are the same as in the larvie. When suf- 
ficiently developed to reach a twelfth of an inch in length, it as- 
sumes an elongated octangular figure. "When in motion the feet 
are not visible beyond the body, the antennae alone over-reaching it. 
The back has a ridge running lengthwise, with two other ridges 
crossing it as has been described in the male. In this stage it is 
torpid. The last moulting now takes place and it passes to the stage 
of the perfect insect. (Fig. 9, 10. 11.) 

The male insect (Fig. Si has a slender, elongated body, eyes very 
distinct, antennae delicate, thorax well defined, abdomen long, and 
ending in two filaments twice as long as the body, and furnished 
with a stiletto shaped appendage. The wings are colorless and trans- 
parent and have two thick sinews running lengthwise through them. 
The body is of a reddish yellow in color and the eyes are black. 

The female insect has an ovoid-oblong body with skull and seg- 
mentary division outlines evenly fringed. There is a notch at each 
eye and one at the caudal extremity. The antennae and feet are 
concealed by the expansion of the sides of the body. Between the 
posterior lobes and the anus there is a space triangular in shape, in 
which by the aid of a microscope, two symmetrical lobes can be seen, 
and in the center a caudal appendage. The back is of a greenish 



110 



THE OLIVE 



color marbled with black, the ridge down the center being of a light- 
er shade. 

From a ventral view the rings of the body can be plainly seen,, 
and also the feet, antennae and borer: all of which are of a pale yel- 
lowish green color; the eves are black. The length is from a fifth 
to a sixth of an inch. 

As soon as the female is perfectly developed, it becomes seden- 
tary, attaching itself to a leaf or the wood of a branch and depos- 
its its eggs, first covering itself completely with a cottony substance, 
which exndes from its body. In this hiding place it empties itself 
of from four hundred and fifty to five hundred eggs. The larvae, 
as soon as hatched, break through this covering and scatter broad- 
cast, the mother remaining for some time longer, the substance sur- 
rounding her hardens and forms a shell which she breaks through 
and abandons. The time of the metamorphosis is not constant ; 
from May to September, insects, larvae and eggs can be found at the 
same time. 

This insect draws its nourishment from the sap of the tree, and 
the branches attacked will wither away. It frequently occurs, that 
on branches selected by this parasite, the black smut or Rust is 
generated. Its destruction is not difficult, it only being necessary to 
spray the tree, at different seasons of the year, with kerosene mixed 
with water, or some prejmration of whale oil soap. Should these 
remedies be ineffectual, the diseased limbs should be cut away 
and burned. 

The presence of ants on a tree are an indication that these insects 
are about. The ants are very fond of them and are a valuable aux- 
iliary in their destruction. 

LECANTUM OLEAE. 

{See Plate XII Fig. 17, 18.) 

The larvae resemble greatly those of the Coccus oleae just 
described, with this difference in the female ; in the adult stage it 



/ 



THE OLIVE 111 

has the aspect of a tortoise shell, and is of a dark chestnut color, 
very convex, with the ridge in the middle of the back and the two 
lateral ones very distinct. As soon as the larva hatches, it leaves 
its covering and the mother dies. The habits of this insect and the 
methods for its destruction are the same as given for the Coccus 
oleae. 

CTSTICOCCUS POLLINII. 

On the branches that are somewhat languid where dried berries 
and leaves are adherent, can be found in the forks, and at the stem 
of the leaves, small excrescences, like a grain of corn, the color of 
the dry wood. On opening one, an outside shell is seen, and in 
this is a soft heart shaped body or sack which is orange color and 
enveloping as many as thirty eggs. In April the egg has the germ 
well developed, and in May the larva appears. It is oblong-ovoid, 
and has the antennae and feet shorter and more robust than the 
Coccus oleae just described. The antennae are six jointed and 
terminating in a group of bristly hair. The femora are very large 
and on the last abdominal ring there are three short appendages, 
each terminating in a short bristle. The ultimate transformation of 
this insect has never been ascertained. The damage done by it 
however is identical with that of the Coccus oleae, and the proper 
method of destroying it is to cut off and burn the infected branches. 

TRIPS OLEAE. 

This insect is also called the olive louse. The damage caused by 
it is very similar to that previously described. 

The larva is soft, oblong, and narrow behind, orange colored, 
antennae whitish, feet black. The head is square in front, curving 
in at the top, the eyes protruding, and placed midway the length 
of the head; antennae short and thick, rings of the thorax large. 
The abdomen has eight rings which are fringed on the sides with 
stiff hair. Feet and femora robust, tibia as long as the femora, tarsi 
short and thick, and like the tibia, terminating in short fine bristles. 



112 



THE OLIVE 



The jjerfect insect has a slender elongated body, head cylindrical, 
longer than wide, protruding eyes, antennae nine jointed, upper 
thorax almost hexagonal, wider than it is long, abdomen wider in 
the middle than at the base, and composed of segments posteriorly 
rounded, and in the female ending in the ovary, which is nearly 
horn shaped. Upper wings nearly reaching to abdominal extremi- 
ties, fringed with long hair, reaching about two-fifths the way round 
the body, under wings plain and shorter, the feet robust, the femora 
swollen, the tibia small at the base and enlarged at the extremities, 
the tarsi short and thick, double jointed and finished with two deli- 
cate claws. General color a splendid black, the antennae yellow, 
the upper wings a dirty white. The length of body nine hun- 
dredths of an inch. 

The Trips exist in the clefts of the branches and among the buds; 
and if there are many of them, they will extend themselves to the 
under-part of the leaves. They are agile and fly well. The female 
dejDOsits her eggs wherever she happens to be, and the larvae remain in 
the same place. About a month is necessary for the different 
changes to take place. In the spring and autumn they produce 
several broods. At the beginning of winter, those that survive, 
conceal themselves under the bark, or in its crevices and rest quietly 
till the following spring. TThen the Trips are in great numbers 
and invade many branches, the trees infested should be shaken, first 
spreading a cloth beneath, to gather up the larvae, chrysalides, and 
winged specimens that may fall. If the branches have been long 
infected it will be better to take them off outright and burn them. 
Spraying with kerosene in the autumn before these lice have 
thoroughly secreted themselves under the bark, will probably answer 
every purpose, 

The Apple, Greedy, and Red Bay Scale insects have all been 
noticed on the olive in California, but so far as known do not seem 
to have inflicted much injury on the trees, and are easily extermi- 
nated by the application of the usual remedies. 



BLACK SCALE OR COCCU5 PLEA AND LEGAN1UM PLEA. 

PlateXLL 




PLATE XII. — COCCUS OLEAE AND LECANIUM OLEAE. 



BLACK SCALE. 

Fig. 1. — Small branch attacked by scale, a, small woody excres- 
cence which sometimes appears on olives attacked by this insect ; b, 
b, leaves which show on lower side some young scales covered with 
cottony substance ; c, c, the shells of dark brown which cover the 
females and their eggs as yet unopened ; d, d, d, other old shells, in 
which are eggs, the larvae having gone out ; c, e, ants searching for 
scale of whom they are very fond, (natural size.) 

Fig. 2. Leaf showing on lower side two scales (a) male (b) fe- 
male, (natural size.) 

Fig. 3. Twig showing at (a) shell of dead female scale. 

Fig. 4. The egg (increased.) 

Fig. 5. The larva just closed in, seen from above (enlarged.) 

Fig. 6, The same seen from below (enlarged.) 

Fig. 7. The male in chrysalis stage (enlarged.) 

Fig. 8. The same as insect (enlarged.) 

Fig. 9. The young female (enlarged.) 

Fig. 10. The adult female, seen from above (enlarged.) 

Fig. 11. The same seen from below (enlarged.) 

Fig. 12. Antenna, (enlarged.) 

Fig. 13. Foot, (enlarged.) 

Fig. 14. View of anus, from above, (enlarged.) 

Fig. lo. Same from below, (enlarged.) 

Fig. 16. Female at point of hatching, seen from below. 

Fig. 17. Female laying eggs, seen from above, (enlarged.) 

Fig. 18. Adult female, seen from above, (enlarged.) 



THE OLIVE 



113 



CYNIPS OLEyE. 

This insect has long antennae which are enlarged slightly near the 
ends with fourteen or fifteen joints according to sex. The upper 
wings have three small cubical cells at the base. The borer at base 
of abdomen is placed between two blade shaped ajDpendages. The 
female bores into the branches and deposits her eggs. The result- 
ing larvae gnaws the bark, wood, and even the pith, digging little 
winding tunnels. The buds on the branches attacked soon wither 
away. 

This insect reaches its perfect cleveloj^ment about the beginning 
of summer. The methods for its destruction should be the same as 
for the Hylesinus oleiperda. 

PTEPOMALTJS QUADPUM. 

This insect has antennae like an elbow, having nine joints, the 
first long and the last oval. The head is large and broad, the 
abdomen of the female prolonged into a conical point. Wings 
without radiating cells. Tarsi with first joint the longest. Borer 
scarcely visible. Head a splendid bronze green. Upper wings 
transparent, without sinews, and with two black spots in each near 
the outer edge. The Antennae and feet black. Tarsi deep yellow. 
Its habits are about the same as the insect just described. 

PRAYS OLEELLUS* 

{See Plate XIII.) 

This formidable enemy of the olive is known as the olive moth. 
The egg is globular in form (Fig. 7), and its surface is composed 
of minute tubercles. In color it is milky white, and is about a 
hundredth of an inch in diameter. 

The larva (Fig. 8, 8a, 8b) has a long, soft body, with fourteen 
rings, one cephalic, three thoracic, and ten abdominal. It has 
three pairs of true feet in the thoracic rings, and five false pairs in 
the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and tenth abdominal rings. 



114 



THE OLIVE 



The head is horn shaped, broader than it is long, with a convex 
bulb on each side. Two indented lines, starting from the base, 
cross in the middle of the back of the head, and form a V in front. 

There are five or six little dots on either side of the head. The 
antennas are very small, with three joints. The first thoracic ring is 
flat and smooth. The second and third have a transversal crease, 
on each side of which are two minute tubercles, each containing a 
bristly hair. 

The first eight abdominal rings are uniform; they are broader 
than long, with three tubercles on each side, each holding a bristle. 
The ninth ring has six hairy tubercles equidistant from each other. 
The last ring is rounded and shield-shaped in the back, and has 
two false feet, which are larger than the others, and which project 
on either side. 

When the larva is first hatched, its color is an ashy green, with 
the head light red. The first thoracic ring contains two brown 
spots, and the feet are black. As the larva increases in size, these 
colors become more decided ; the head changes to a bright red, the 
back of the first ring inclines to a pale yellow, and the spots on it 
become black and nearly square. The last abdominal ring in some 
larvae becomes brown, in others not. Subsequently a darker line 
appears each side of the center of the back, extending from the 
second thoracic to the ninth abdominal ring. These lines continue 
to darken, and between them will appear a pale yellow streak. The 
backs of the first thoracic and last abdominal rings become a straw 
color. Some larvae do not change color till after their transforma- 
tion into the pupa stage. Their greatest length is one-third of 
an inch. 

The pupa is elongated, ( Fig. 9, 9 a, 9 b,) and gradually tapers 
downward in a conical shape, rounded in front ; the wings, antennae, 
and eyes are visible. In its first days, the color is a light green, but 
grows darker as did the larva. Its length is about a quarter of an 



THE OLIVE 



115 



inch. The cocoon which envelops the pupa is composed of silky 
filaments so finely woven as to be transparent. 

The moth (Fig. 10, 10-1, 10 a, 10 b,) has a rounded head cover- 
ed with narrow scales. Antenna? wiry, with globular joints. Upper 
edge of upper wings fringed with soft hair, lower edge bare. Low- 
er wings shorter than upper, and fringed all around with hair which 
is longer on the upper than on the lower edge. Half way the length 
of the posterior tibia, are two long spurs. Body, antenna? and feet, cov- 
ered with ashy gray scales. Upper wings a whitish ash color, with 
a silvery gloss, with a disk-shaped black spot midway the wing, near 
the lower ed°:e, and another less marked near lower outside corner. 
The remainder of the wing is dotted with very minute black specks, 
irregularly placed. The lower wings of a uniform dark ash color. 
Length, a quarter of an inch, with the wings folded, nearly half an 
inch with the wings spread. The foregoing is a description of the 
moth in its tpyical condition and in a state of perfect preservation. 
The upper wings sometimes vary in the number and size of the 
spots. 

There are three generations of the moth. 

First: The winter generation, which draw their nourishment from 
the leaves and tender buds. 

Second : The spring generation, which devours the germ of the 
blossom even before it opens. 

Third: The summer generation, which attacks only the kernel of 
the seed. 

In February the eggs of the first generation are seen on the under 
part of the leaf (Fig. 1 a a,), In the last days of that month the 
larva hatches and commences to consume the foliage (Fig. 1 b. ) mak- 
ing galleries under the epidermis of the leaf which takes the color 
of the dry leaf and becomes transparent. Later on, this gallery is 
burst by the young grub, which continues to prey upon the leaves. 
(Fig. 1 c.) enveloping itself in silken threads, as a screen against 
external agents. Some larva? consume the entire web of the leaf 



116 



THE OLIVE 



(Fig. 1 d.) and all shun the direct action of the sun. At the end 
of twenty-five or thirty days (about the last of March) the larva 
commences its transformation into the pupa, weaving on the same 
leaf (Fig. 1 e), a cocoon which takes about twenty-four hours. 
In another twenty-four hours the last change takes place, and they 
acquire the semblance of the pupa (Fig. 9, 9 a, 9 b.) They remain 
in a lethargic state for twelve or fourteen days, when the moth ap- 
pears, which is about the first of April. The moths live a month 
or more, and from the middle to the last of April they flutter about 
the olive in the evening when the sun is gone. During the day 
they remain quiet among the leaves and there the female deposits 
her eggs. 

The larvae of the second generation hatch in the first half of May 
and assault the floral cluster, penetrating within the blossom and 
consuming the pistil and gemmules (Fig. 2 a a). One larva can in 
this way destroy twenty or more blossoms. In the first half of June 
they change into pupae and in seven or eight days after into moths. 
These live a little more than a month and towards the beginning of 
July the female deposits her eggs one by one, piercing the calix of 
the berry. It is seldom that two eggs are deposited in one berry. 

THIRD GENERATION. 

The eggs which have been deposited in the olive hatch in about 
ten days, and the larvae penetrate into the seed of the berry and con- 
sume first the skin about the kernel, and eventually the whole al- 
mond. (Fig. 5, e, d.) When they have attained their full develop- 
ment they issue from the fruit by boring a hole in the softer part of 
the seed near the stem, which being thus weakened causes the olive 
to fall from the tree. 

The larva weaves its cocoon at once, on either fruit, stem or leaves. 
In eight or ten days, that is, from the last of September to the 
middle of October, the moth of this third generation will appear, 
from which the generation of the following February will have 



THE OLIVE 



117 



origin. The damage caused by the moth we have already stated. 
Those of the first generation injure only a portion of the leaves, 
those of the second consume the blossoms which would be trans- 
formed into fruit, those of the third take the fruit itself. 

The different methods that may be suggested to combat the moth 
may be reduced to these three: 

First — To cut away in February and March the branches which 
shelter the first generation. Their presence can be detected by the 
appearance of the leaves, which become transparent. 

Second— By gathering the olives of August and September as soon 
as they commence falling, the larvae at this time being inside the 
fruit, and the subsequent treatment, in the usual way of oil making, 
will accomplish its destruction. 

Third, The instincts of this insect, as well as others of its kin- 
dred, to hover about a flame, can also be utilized as a factor in its 
extermination. Fires can be built among the trees about sunset, 
or may be carried in suitable vessels from place to place. Mean- 
while the trees should be shaken to dislodge the insects and attract 
them to the light. 

This last operation must be performed either the last of April, 
from the middle to the end of June, or from the last of September to 
the middle of October, when the insect is in its last phase as a moth. 

DACUS OLEiE, OR OLIVE FLY. 

(See Plate XIV.) 

This is perhaps the most injurious to the olive of all insects, on 
account of the facility with which it multiplies, and the damage it 
can cause in a brief period of time. We may also add that it is the 
most common, the most numerous and the most invincible of all its 
enemies. 

The egg (Fig. 9) is ovoidal, elongated in form, and of a milky 
white color. Length about one-fortieth of an inch. The larva 
(Fig. 10, 10 a, 10 b,) is conical in form, elongated, and is composed 



118 



mi; olive 



of fourteen rings. The mouth is furnished with two sharp, scaly 
black hooks (Fig. 10 a,) and on either side the base of the second 
ring there is a calix-formed papilla, (Fig. 10 b,) the edges of which 
are scalloped. The twelfth ring is the broadest of all. The thir- 
teenth has small papillae on each side. The last ring is the smallest 
and from a back view shows the anus and two lower false feet. The 
tracheal canals run in a flexuous line to the thirteenth ring where 
they connect, near the papillae, with a transversal canal. The gen- 
eral color of the body is a dirty white. The teguments are so trans- 
parent that the tracheal and alimentary canals can easily be ob- 
served. The papillae on the second and thirteenth rings are red- 
dish in color. Maximum length a trifle over a quarter of an inch. 
The pupa is an elongated ovoid in shape. The first and last rings 
are visible only from a ventral view (Fig. 11, 11 a, 11 b.) The 
papillae of the second and thirteenth rings retain their primitive 
form. All the rings are fluted transversely. 

In the first period the pupa is of a dirty white tinge, but changes 
to a light yellow, the papillae remaining red as does the orifice of 
the anus. Its length is one-seventh of an inch. 

The head of the perfect fly (Fig. 12.), is a little broader than the 
anterior part of the thorax. The eyes are large and black, anten- 
nae three jointed. Its color is sometimes a light straw, and at oth- 
ers a deep yellow. 

Of the three joints (Fig. 12 a.), the first is short, the second a lit- 
tle longer, the third twice as long as the second, and ending in a 
flexuous bristle, longer than itself. 

Upper thorax gray, with three lengthwise black lines. Back of 
abdomen, specked with black, with a lengthwise band, and lower 
edges of the first two rings a deep yellow. Ventrical, a dirty dark 
yellow. Wings glossy, with blotches of brown in apex, sometimes 
another blotch on lower edge, at the extremity of the anal nerve. 

The roots of the wings are a pale yellow. Feet light, tarsi a lit- 
tle darker. The borer and ovisac (Fig. 12 b.) is about the same 



THE OLIVE 



119 



length as the abdomen, and is a dark red. The point of the borer is 
black. The male differs from the female by the absence of the bor- 
er, and by having the posterior margin of the third abdominal ring 
fringed with black hair turned backwards. The body is one-sixth 
of an inch in length. 

The date of the most copious hatching of these insects is variable. 
When the olive has reached its greatest development (about the end 
of July) the flies just transformed from the pupa appear. Copula- 
tion then takes place, and the female, choosing the ripest fruit, de- 
posits her eggs there, usually one egg to each berry. (Fig. 1 a. c. 
b.b). 

In less than twenty four hours an amber spot will appear on the sur- 
face of the olive where the egg was deposited, which will turn darker 
after a little time. The spots can be seen only when the berry is 
green, as it grows ripe they are hardly discernible. Each female 
deposits about one hundred eggs. In ten or fifteen days these eggs 
hatch. The larva, with the hooks of borer, attacks the pulp of 
the fruit, and then makes its way into the seed, boring a winding 
tunnel. The pulp of the berry above the tunnel will become reddish 
wrinkled and transparent, thus showing the presence of the enemy. 
The larva lives from thirty to forty days. Some change into the 
pupa form inside of the seed and also into flies, but the greatest 
number abandon the berry by making an aperture through the j^cr- 
icarp and change into pupae either in the ground, or in the crevices 
on the trunk of the tree. 

The flies appear after thirty or forty days. The duration of th / 
three periods, that is the egg, larva and fly may vary as much as 
twenty days from the foregoing, as eggs deposited at one time may 
be hatching for twenty days consecutively, and eggs, larvae, pupae, 
and flies can be found at the same time. 

The pupae of the last generation do not change in the given time, 
that is in thirty or forty clays but remain in that state through the 
spring till the fruit has reached some size and the prosj:>erity of their 



120 



THE OLIVE 



offspring is assured. Then the fly appears ; it usually lives from 
twenty to thirty clays on the trees, passing from branch to branch 
and sucking the sap wherever found. It is rather torpid during the 
cool weather but very agile when it grows warm. 

The damage caused by this fly consists in the consumption of 
from one-third to one-half the pulp of the berry, thus diminishing 
the yield of oil and in leaving inside the seed a mass of excrement, 
which deteriorates its quality. 

There are three expedients for combating the olive fly : 
First— To gather the fruit as soon as it is barely ripe, and crush 
it at once,- thus destroying the larvse and pupae within and pre- 
venting further multiplication. The localities most afflicted by 
these pests are those where the harvesting of the olive is protracted 
through the winter and part of the spring, either from lack of suffi- 
cient help, or to make the white oil, as is done in Lucca and on the 
Riviera. These, in fact, are the regions devastated most frequently 
by this fly. 

Second. — To keep the trunk of the tree clean and to spray the 
trees after the harvest is over with something strong enough to 
kill the pupae, and taking care that not even one berry remains on 
the ground. 

Third. — To cultivate the ground well about the tree, after first 
shaking it and thus to bury all olives containing eggs, larvae, or 
pupae. The fruit when picked should not be kept in heaps, or the 
heat engendered will cause the flies to hatch immediately. 

This closes the list of insects that are known to prey upon the 
olive. Some we already have with us, others a close degree of 
scrutiny may reveal, and still others let us hope we may ever be 
spared. 

PARASITIC PLANTS OU VEGETABLE ENEMIES. 

The olive tree is also subject to injury from the action of several 
parasitical plants of which the principal and best known are the 
following. 



THE PRAYS OLEELLUS OR OLIVE MOTH. 



PLATE XIII. — PRAYS OLEELLUS. 



THE OLIVE MOTH. 

Fig. 1. Branch attacked by the first generation of moths, (a. a,) 
eggs deposited on lower side of leaf, (b) larva which feeds on the 
leaf, (c) a dult larva which does the same. 

Fig. 2. Infested by the second generation on the blossoms when 
forming. 

Fig. 3. Infested by the third generation at work on the fruit. 
Fig. 4. Young olive enlarged to show position of egg of this 
insect. 

Fig. 5. Full grown olive cut in two, inhabited by larva, (a) 
pulp, (b) nut, (c) seed, (d) larva of the moth which lias already 
consumed a part of the seed, (e) part of seed bored and full of ex- 
crement of the larva. 

Fig. 6. Full grown olive (enlarged) , from which the larva has 
departed to become a chrysalis, (a) pulp, (b) nut, (c) seed almost 
empty only the outer skin remaining, (d) excrement left by the 
larva, (e) exit of larva. 

Fig. 7. Egg (enlarged.) 

Fig. 8. 8, 8a, 8b, Larvae in three stages of development. 
Fig. 9. 9, 9a, 9b, Chrysalides corresponding to larvae 8, 8a, and 
8b, (enlarged.) 

Fig. 10. 10, 10a, and 10b, Moths with stages of development. 
10(1), the same with wings closed, 10(2) the same seen from the 
side. 



THE OLIVE 



121 



AGARICUS MELLEUS. 

{Root rot.) 

This fungus has a flat, thin, scaly top with a fluted expanded 
margin and spongy stalk. On first appearing, it is whitish, but 
afterwards becomes mottled with red. Spore a floury white. The 
hairs which are found on the head are black. It is found at the 
base of coniferous and fruit trees as well as the olive tree. 

Its vegetable system is wrapped about the subterranean part of 
the tree, and its presence can be recognized by an abundant dis- 
charge of resinous matter on the trunk and principal roots, especi- 
ally of coniferous trees, and by a white creeper which develops be- 
neath the bark of the roots and trunk, and by brown filaments re- 
sembling fibrous roots which spread out and run over the ground. 

The creepers which are first seen are produced from the germin- 
ation of the spore. Developing from this, the parasite shews itself 
on the roots, in the form of a filament or creeper, the outer covering 
being smooth and dark, while the pith or marrow is white. These 
creepers take root in the wood, penetrating the pith and spreading 
out until in the form of a membrane, they fix themselves in the re- 
generating zone. By some writers this root rot has been given the 
name of Rhizomorpha subcorticallus. In a fresh state it has an 
agreeable odor and seen at a distance in the dark it has a phosphor- 
escent appearance. 

The regenerating zone attacked by the Rhizomorpha ceases to be 
prolific as the formation of new wood has been interrupted. 

The cellular and fibrous elements invaded by these tendrils turn 
brown. 

After this plant has devastated the lower part of the trunk of 
the tree, it spreads upward to the surface of the ground, showing 
itself in the autumn through crevices in the bark. The decay of 
the Mulberry, Chestnut, Fig, and sometimes citrus trees, it is be- 
lieved is principally due to this fungus. The tree withers gradually 
without apparent cause, the climate and chemical or physicial con- 

o 



122 



THE OLIVE 



ditions having no part in its decline. The propagation of this dis- 
ease through the creeper, can be effected by the contact of healthy 
with infected plants. Infection through the spores commences in 
the trunk, and is transmissible by the wind. 

Where this malady is suspected, if it exists, an examination will 
show the fungoid growth of the Agaricus melleus. The only rad- 
ical treatment for this parasite is to uproot the infected trees at 
once, and burn at least the affected parts. The extirpation of the 
mushroom will prevent propagation by spores. Other trees should 
not be planted immediately in ground from which diseased ones 
have been removed. 

FUMAGO OLELE, BLACK SMUT OR RUST. 

{See Plate XV.) 

This is an epiphyte fungus which attacks the branches and foliage 
of the olive more especialty on the under parts. (Fig. 1.) It consists 
of black sooty blotches which form an incrustation more or less 
dense, which is smooth on the adhering side and scaly on the outer 
side. The black powder, greatly magnified, is seen in (Fig. 2.) 
The trees attacked by this black smut, languish as it impedes the 
exhalation of the leaves. It manifests itself mostly on plants that 
have not sufficient light, or which are situated in soil that is poor, 
or low and humid. Sometimes it follows immediately the invasion 
of the scale which have enfeebled the branches or where the Honey 
dew prevails. These are conditions favorable to this fungus. 

Some entomologists claim that the scale is the cause of this fungus. 
This is a question in olive culture that has been widely discussed 
and has occupied the attention of European experts for the last 
hundred years with the result that it may now be stated positively 
that this fungus can be propagated without the aid of the scale insect. 
The black scale and the black fungus are two separate and distinct 
pests to which the olive tree is subject and though they are often 
seen together, have origins entirely distinct. 



THE OLIVE 



123 



The black fungus is due solelv to local causes. There is either 
too much dampness pr not enough light. The infected branches 
should be cut off and burned and the tree sprayed with kerosene as 
heretofore described. Xo olive tree on ground high enough for a 
sufficiency of air and ventilation was ever afflicted with this pest. 
The cultivation of the soil provokes moisture and stimulates the 
vegetable growth of the tree, so where the black fungus appears, 
cease this cultivation, do not stir up the soil, but on the contrary 
check the excessive growth and humiditv, by allowing; the surface 
■of the ground to harden. Prune the trees so that each may have a 
maximum of light and air. If the excess of moisture cannot be 
remedied by these means, the soil must be drained. 

VISCtTM ALBUM, MISTLETOE. 

The mistletoe is propagated from one tree to another by its seed. 
It extends its green roots through the branches from which it draws 
its nourishment, greatly enfeebling the tree. The only method of 
destroying it is, to cut off the branches on which it has effected a 
lodgment, and burn them. 

LICHENS AND MOSSES. 

It is erroneously claimed by many writers that the mossy sub- 
stance which grows upon the trunk and branches of the olive and 
other trees is a parasite. Instead it is composed of moss and lichens, 
the principal ones of which are Parmelia. Lecanara, Verrucaria, etc.. 
among the lichens, and Hypsum, Leskea, Bryum and Orthotrichum 
among the mosses. 

These last are cormus fungi, and all are epiphytes and live on the 
outside of the dead bark and exercise no parasitical influence. They 
shield the bark from the sun. but the humidity they engender is a 
frequent cause of rot, and they also serve as nesting places for hurt- 
ful insects. For these reasons it is well to liberate the trees from 
them by scraping the infected parts, or spraying with a solution 
of lime. 



124 



THE OLIVE 



HONEY DEW. 

Tke Honey clew consists of a gummy sugary perspiration on the 
leaves, especially on the under side, on the flowers, and on the young 
branches. This substance sometimes forms itself into a varnish uni- 
form in its deposit, and at others into drops like clew. This disease 
attacks the Olive, Poplar, Linden, Orange, Walnut, Willow and 
Elm trees and also the grape vine. The real cause of it is un- 
known. Some writers think that the viscous matter is exuded from 
the cochineal insect which infests the plants, but others have observed 
that this disturbance exists both on trees in the open air, and on 
those enclosed in greenhouses where there were no insects. 

The popular idea is that the humor emitted by the morbid leaves 
is a production of the plant itself, caused by the unfavorable influence 
of a hot, dry soil. Admitting this to be the probable cause, the remedy 
would be copious fertilizing and to prune the tree so as to keep the 
top in proportion to the spread of the roots. 

SCAB. 

The scab manifests itself in wart-like excrescences as large as wal- 
nuts, often affecting the youngest and most slender branches. The 
plant impoverished by this pest takes on a languid appearance and 
sometimes dies. Ordinarily this evil is met with on soil that is low 
or too rich and not sufncienth T ventilated, or where trees are 
placed too near together, in trees excessively pruned, or in those 
maltreated in the gathering of the fruit by beating with poles. 

Some writers hold the opinion that the scab is caused by either a 
vegetable or animal parasite, but the most diligent microscopic ob- 
servations-have never revealed the presence of an insect, either be- 
fore, after, or contemporaneously with, the apparition of the small 
protuberances. The cause therefore must arise from some disturb- 
ance of the functions provoked principally by contusions, either from 
hail storms or by poles in beating clown the fruit, by excessive prun- 
ing, or by absence of light and air. The contusions of the cortical 



THE OLIVE 



125 



tissues and of the regenerating zone has the same effect that the 
puncture of an insect would, and at times produces the enlargement 
of the zone and sometimes the enlargement of the herbaceous tis- 
sues. These enlargements in time extend to the wood under the 
bark and cause the bark to draw away thus affording a receptacle 
for different insects. This would however be an effect and not a 
cause of the evil. 

Some orchardists remove the protuberances by shaving them off 
with a sharp knife, but this does not restore the tree to health as this 
cutting does not remove the primary cause. The first method for 
its cure is to kee]) the trees wide apart, well lighted, to prune spar- 
ingly, and to abolish the barbarous usance of beating the trees when 
gathering the berries. 

Senor Tablada says he found an insect eight hundredths of an inch 
in length in the act of making these warts and cured the tree by cut- 
ting them off. 

THE OLIVE ROT. 

{See Plate XVI.) 

The rot is the gangrene which appears on the trunk and larger 
branches of the olive tree. At times it is so extensive as to con- 
sume nearly all the cylindrical part of the wood leaving the larger 
branches hollow and rendering them an easy prey to the action of 
the winds. 

When a wound is made on the olive tree either by the breaking 
of a limb or by pruning, and is not at once shielded from contact 
with the air, a pro3ess of canker is initiated, provoked by the hu- 
midity found there, the action of insects and the spores of certain 
lichens or creepers. Trees improperly pruned are usually the ones 
attacked by the rot. To prevent it, an olive orchard should be 
placed on well drained soil and receive plenty of light. The trees 
should not be bruised and when a branches cut off the wound 
should be immediately covered with grafting wax or a mixture of 
cow dung and clay. When the rot has taken hold the diseased part 



126 



THE OLIVE 



should be cut away till the sound wood is reached and this should 
be well spread with grafting wax. 

INSECTICIDES. 

If the orchard is sprayed once a year it will be sufficient, and the 
best time is in the winter after all danger from frost has passed. 
Whale oil soap is an excellent remedy but it has not the efficiency 
of kerosene. It will kill the coccids but has no effect upon their 
eggs. Kerosene pure and simple would be a dangerous and entirely 
unnecessary remedy to use, but diluted ten times with water it be- 
comes much less expensive and by far the most efficacious. 

The United States Department of Agriculture has published the 
following recipe to make thirty gallons of wash. 

EMULSION. 

Kerosene, 2 gallons 67 per cent, 

Whale oil soap, h pound 
Water, 1 gallon 

Boil the soap in the water till entirely dissolved then add it to 
the two gallons of kerosene, and churn the mixture thoroughly for 
five or ten minutes. The emulsion if perfect forms a cream which 
thickens on cooling, and should adhere without oiliness to the sur- 
face of glass. Any danger in the use of kerosene lies in the faulty 
or half-made emulsion. The soap may be of insufficient strength 
through exposure or some similar cause, when an increase will 
oblige the oil and water to emulsify, and will also make the emul- 
sion nearly permanent. 

The percentage of kerosene should not exceed eighty per cent,, as 
the oil weighs six and a half pounds to the gallon, while water 
weighs eight, and more cannot easily be held in suspension in water. 
On the other hand in the process of emulsification, kerosene loses 
a portion of its value as an insecticide, and emulsions containing 
less than thirty per cent, of oil, although they may not separate 




33 per cent. 



THE OLIVE 



127 



when diluted with water, are nevertheless too much weakened for 
effective use against scale insects. 

The reason that high fire test kerosene is recommended as an in- 
secticide is, that the lighter oils with which it is associated in a 
crude state, have been eliminated by the refining process, these be- 
ing exceedingly deadly to vegetation, leaving the refined kerosene 
which should always be used for this purpose. The heat of the 
sun increases to an injurious extent the action of kerosene, and 
stronger solutions than that above given if used at all, should be 
applied on cloudy days or in the evening. 

Experiments with different grades of refined oil, the Elaine 
amongst the number, show that they all emulsify equally well if 
the alkali contained in the soap is of sufficient strength. But the 
Elaine separates the soonest. 

The kerosene wash should be applied in a fine spray from the 
center of the trees, and not the least of its recommendations will be 
its very great economy. 

In addition to insect pests and vegetable parasites, the olive tree 
numbers among its enemies the blackbird, the robin, the starling, 
the jay, and the crow, as they are all eager clevourers of its fruit, 
but it is aided and greatly assisted by the nightingale, the titmouse 
or tomtit, and the woodpecker, as they never touch the berries, and 
are insect eaters only, and should therefore be encouraged in the 
orchard. The predatory birds should be fired at in the air, so as 
not to wound the trees with the shot. The pugnacious English 
sparrow, by driving away all other birds, especially the little tomtit, 
is an enemy particularly to be marked for destruction. 



eKcLYWj&f anil cproilucf. 

CHAPTEE XI. 

' ; L'uliva quanto piu pende piu rende."* 

THE FORMATION OF THE OLIVE AND ITS FATTY SUBSTANCE. 

Dr. A. Funaro, of Pisa, from some very interesting experiments 
conducted by him at that place in 1878, has been able to prove 
that the nut is the first part of the fruit to form. The olives ex- 
perimented upon were gathered from a farm near Pisa, at intervals 
from July 10th to February 25th, and carefully analyzed, with the 
object of studying the formation of the fatty material This fact 
had already been stated by Prof. A. Roussille. 

On the 25th of July the nut itself was not perfectly formed, but 
on the 10th of August it was quite perfect, though tender, and 
could not be detached from the fleshy part. 

On the 25th of September it had reached its full develoj)ment. 
Then commenced the increase of size and weight of the pulp, and 
the rapid increase of the fatty matter, while the quantity of water 
diminished slowly, oscillating according to the atmospheric condi- 
tions of the days when the olives were gathered. These, after the 
10th of August, increased gradually until the 10th of September. 
Between the 10th and 25th of September they almost doubled in 
weight. One hundred olives which on Sej)teniber 10th weighed 
75.94 grams, on the 25th of that month weighed 144.22 grams. 
After this period the increase of weight was gradual, but only 
slight, up to the 25th of October; after that date a progressive and 
slow decrease set in. 



*The longer the olive hangs, the more it renders. 



PLATE XIV.— DACUS OLE.E. 



THE OLIVE ELY. 

Fig. 1. Branch with fly in act of depositing egg at (a), (bb) show- 
ing spots where eggs have been deposited, (c. d.) showing gallery 
cut by the larvae with purple lines. 

Fig. 2. Piece of pulp increased in size, a, a, wound made by bor- 
ing, b, b, corresponding to cavity which contains the egg. 

Fig. 3. Same with the skin raised to show the cavity containing 
the es'o' at c. 

Fig. 4. Green olive showing larvae. 

Fig. '5. Mature olive with transparent lines showing gallery. 

Fig. 6. Same open showing larva. 

Fig. 7. Same open showing chrysalis. 

Fig. 8. Same open showing hole of exit of larva. 

Fig. 9. Egg (enlarged.) 

Fig. 10. Larva enlarged, 10 a, two first rings with claws, side 
view, (enlarged), 10b, Papilla at the base of which opens the anter- 
ior extremity of tracheal canal. 

Fig. 11. Chrysalis (enlarged), 11a, the first ring still more en- 
larged, lib, (the last ring enlarged.) 

Fig. 12. Female insect, (enlarged) 12a, antenna side view, (en- 
larged) 12b, borer, (enlarged.) 



THE OLIVE 129 

In fact the same one hundred olives 

GRAMS. 

On the tenth of October weighed 161.73 

" twenty fifth of October . 163.93 

" tenth of November 117.53 

" twenty fifth of November . 128.88 

" tenth of December.. - 136.50 

" twenty fifth of December 1 36.40 

" tenth of January 163.85 

" twenty fifth of January 109.85 

" tenth of February 132.60 



" twenty fifth of February 131.65 

The variations are due to the quantity of water contained in the 

pulp according to the hygromic condition, the winds, the rain and 

the hoar frost which coincided with the gathering. 

On the twenty fifth of November the olives were empurpled, and 

had a reddish pulp, on the tenth of December they had turned 

black and the pulp was still more highly colored, and on the tenth 

of February the pulp was entirely of a winey red. 

In one hundred parts of these olives the following proportion was 

found in weight of water, of dry material and of fatty material. 



130 



THE OLIVE 




THE OLIVE 



131 



Whence it is clear that in the berry the quantity of water after 
the tenth of September diminishes gradually. From 59.73 per cent, 
it falls to 48.35 by the end of February thus losing about 19 per 
cent, or one-fifth of its weight, The percentage of oil, especially of the 
pulp, increases notably from the end of September to the end of 
November, but after this time the increase is small. The Italian 
country folk have a proverb which justly says: "At Santa Repa- 
rata (8 Oct.) every olive berry is oiled." From this time the pulp 
grows softer, and squeezed between the thumb and finger, some lit- 
tle globules of oil can be seen. 

By the investigations of Signor Harz, of Vienna, confirmed by 
those of Roussille, it has been shown that the fatness of the olive is 
formed in little special cells of secretion precisely as the chlorophyl 
or green coloring matter is evolved and these are distributed through 
the berry side by side. When the fruit is still young these cells 
contain a material which is not fatty, nor is it starch, or any of the 
hydrates of carbon similar to these substances but instead is charged 
with nitrogen and contains a substance which in the process of ripe- 
ning, takes on the character of a tough gum, wax, and fat. Finally 
this compound material, as maturity approaches, liquifies becomes 
oil and working from the inside, outwards, the membranes of the 
little cells themselves are gradually dissolved and the berry is tilled 
with oil. 

Messrs. Roussille and Funaro have also discovered that while the- 
fatty material of the pulp is always on the increase up to maturity, 
that of the leaves on the other hand, is almost constant and always 
in such quantity as to overthrow the belief that there may be any 
connection whatever between them. The former undoubtedly is 
formed in the berry as Harz discovered by microscopical observa- 
tion. 

Funaro has further proved that the sugar of the leaves only 
appears when the oily substance is perfected, that is to say when the 
plant is near the term of its vegetative period and the fruit is well 



132 



THE OLIVE 



developed. In truth it is not found before November, the season 
when the oily material is formed in notable quantity, and on the 
other hand it is met with in December, January and even in Feb- 
ruary an epoch in which the vital functions are at the minimum of 
activity. 

The conclusion from this is, that the sugar existing in the leaves 
has no part in the formation of the fatty material, and it is not to 
be considered other than as a product of metamorphosis of other 
hydrates of carbon of secondary importance for oily plants. 

WHEN TO GATHER THE OLIVE. 

The time in which to harvest the olive varies according to clim- 
ate and the product desired. It may depend absolutely on climate, 
as the maturity of the olive is hastened and more oil is obtained 
where the temperature is high and vegetation has the advantage of 
a vivid light. 

So the olive matures earlier and carries more oil at the extreme 
-south of its zoue, but the oil is fatty, high-colored and only useful 
in manufactures or as an illuminant, being utterly useless for food. 
For the latter purpose it should carry little fat or color. 

Hence it follows that the northern part of the olive zone pro- 
duces the finest oils at full maturity, whilst towards the south to 
secure the same result it is necessary to anticipate and to harvest 
while the berries are still yellowish or just turning purple. 

So in northern Italy and southern France a fine table oil is ob- 
tained from olives that are black and fully matured, and the famous 
white oil is made by allowing the berries to become over-ripe and 
deferring the harvest till March, April and even May. 

On the other hand, in southern Italy and Sicily a fine oil is ob- 
tained by early harvesting, mature berries giving an oil that is ex- 
ceedingly gross, dense, highly colored and of a disgusting taste. So 
when seeking to produce an oil for table use, the effect of the clim- 
ate may be modified to a certain degree. 



THE OLIVE 



133 



The so-called white oil is preferred simply because some markets- 
demand it, but it is undesirable from every point of view. As it is 
made from over-ripe fruit it soon becomes rancid, and lacks the 
delicate flavor of oil made at j list the proper time. But worse than 
all this it is made at the expense of the tree, for it is evident that 
the sooner the tree can be relieved of the burden of its crop, the 
better it will recuperate for the following season. 

It is doubtful whether the olive j^roduces more oil when picked 
barely ripe, or at full maturity, or when it commences to fall from 
the tree. The usual belief is in favor of a deferred harvest, and 
the country people express it in the couplet that heads this chapter. 

The longer the olive hangs 
The more it renders. 

This is an illusion. The longer the berries hang on- the trees 
the greater is their exposure to a variety of perils; the birds devour 
many, more are beaten off by storms, and unless they are taken off 
the ground immediately, acquire an earthy flavor which renders 
them unfit for oil making. Another serious danger is that of being 
touched by frost which diminishes the yield of oil. But even sup- 
posing all olives to remain on the tree up to the point of full ma- 
turity, they are not making any more oil but are losing water. 
They become softer inasmuch as they lose in bulk, thus increasing 
the relative but not the actual quantity of oil. 

We may therefore draw the following conclusions ; 

First: That the greatest absolute quantity of oil is to be ob- 
tained when the olives are ripe. 

Second : That in a late harvest there is no gain in quantity but 
an actual loss in quality. 

Third: That in anticipating maturity in southern countries, it 
is possible to reduce the tendency to grossness, high color and bad 
taste and so produce a finer oil. 

HOW TO HAEVEST THE OLIVE. 

From very ancient times the olive has been o-athered bv beatino; 
the trees with poles and so knocking the berries to the ground.. 



134 



THE OLIVE 



The temptation to do this is great, It is evident that it is the cheap- 
est way to get in the crop. But it is penny wise and pound foolish, 
If the crop of that year was the only one to deal with, well and 
good, there would be nothing to say against it, but the beating makes 
it impossible for the tree to bear the following year. 

Hence it is plain that instead of being the cheapest mode of deal- 
ing with a crop, it is the most exjjensive as it is one of the direct 
causes of the olive bearing only every other year. 

Each leaf shelters a bud which in time will be a twig or a blos- 
som, if the leaf is knocked off the bud is killed, for its life depends 
upon the preservation of the leaf, and these leaves are more plenti- 
ful on the fruit branches than any other part of the tree. No mat- 
ter how carefully the fruit be polecl off, damage is sure to be done. 
Olives should be picked by hand from ladders. 

If the berries are to be immediately crushed they may be thrown 
upon a canvas cover placed about the tree to receive them ; but if 
they have to be carried any distance or kept for any length of time 
it will be best to handle them more carefully, as the bruises received 
on being thrown to the ground cause an early decay of the berry to 
the great detriment of the oil. 

Different kinds of olives ripen at different periods and in order to 
make the best oil the berry should be gathered at the exact period 
of its maturity and at no other. So a very large olive orchard 
should be made up of different varieties coming in at successive pe- 
riods, but a small one should consist of only one variety. 

Soil and locality also affect the quality of the oil. The same olive 
on different soils or on a hill and on a plain will give a very differ- 
ent oil ; and these should not be mixed, but made separate^, or the 
quality of the whole may suffer. 

The olive takes on four changes of color, although all the varie- 
ties do not strictly follow this rule: Green is followed by yellow, 
then a reddish purple which is succeeded by a wine red and lastly 
a black red or glossy black. If the berry is left upon the tree the 



THE OLIVE 



135 



skin finally wrinkles and the color becomes a dull black. This is 
the state in which it is popularly supposed to give the most oil, 
which we have already shown to be a fallacy but even granting it to 
be true, the quality is inferior, the flavor gross and the oil soon be- 
comes rancid. An olive is fully ripe when on being squeezed be- 
tween the thumb and finger the soft pulp show^s no white, but for 
many reasons, as we have seen, it may be desirable to forestall this 
period. 

No time can be set when an olive crop should be harvested. It 
may vary by weeks from one season to another, and it is far better 
on every account to anticipate, than to defer the harvest. The ber- 
ries should be carefully gone- over and all leaves and dirt picked out ; 
the former giving a bitter taste to the oil and the latter lessening 
the quantity as well as lowering the quality. 

What will an olive orchard produce ? As we have seen, it is cus- 
tomary in Spain in estimating the annual oil product of an orchard 
to calculate that every six trees will give four gallons of oil. This 
at first glance appears to be a very small yield, but it must be re- 
membered that it is an estimate applied to the whole face of the 
country, that olive trees are very numerous in Spain and many or- 
chards are very old and in a poor state of cultivation. Also that it 
is a general annual estimate independent of fluctuations from year 
to year. 

A careful observation of the olive districts in Italy by Professor 
Caruso, extending over many years, shows that the greatest produc- 
tion is found in Sicily, but not the finest quality. The Sicilian 
product runs as high as ninety gallons of oil to the acre, falling to 
fifty in Liguria and the Neapolitan States, which would give a mean 
of seventy gallons to the acre for the whole of Italy. 

Mr. Cooper makes the statement that on a 'piece of two acres i if 
ground seven year old trees averaged one hundred and twenty-two 
pounds of olives per tree. 

On the Quito Farm, Mission olive trees which were grown from 



136 



THE OLIYE 



cuttings put into the ground in the spring of 1883, and transplanted 
to position, have now, July, 1888, a fair showing of fruit, one-half 
the total number of trees carrying berries on them in varying 
quantities ; and those trees grown from cuttings put in at the same 
time, and which from their position it was unnecessary to trans- 
plant, have attained a much greater size, and carry a correspond- 
ingly increased crop. Hence we may conclude : 

First — That the olive in California will give a remunerative crop 
in seven years from cutting. 

Second — That we may reasonably expect to secure from seventy- 
five to one hundred gallons of oil per acre from our olive orchards. 
The newness of the soil, coupled with the youth and vigor of the 
trees, assure us that we make no mistake in such an estimate. 



PLATE XV. — THE BLACK SMUT OK RUST. 



Fig. 1. Ad olive twig attacked by the rust, drawn from 
(once enlarged.) 

Fig. 2. Section of an olive leaf attacked by the rust, showin 
parasite, (enlarged four hundred times.) 

Fig. 3. The rust on the berry. 



S^traetioi}, forage arte) dtfarifiea- 
tior^ of tfte ©if. 

CHAPTER XII. 

" And wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make his face to shine." — 

Psalms 104 vs. 15. 

A short quotation from the distinguished Prof. Cupari, of the 
University of Pisa, will give a clear idea of what is somewhat inac- 
curately called oil making, and correct a common error in regard 
to the process. He says, in his lesson on agriculture, "Olive oil is 
not like the juice of the grape, which requires a chemical process to 
transform the sugar it contains into alcohol, in order that it may 
become wine ; the oil is there, ready made within the fruit, and the 
utmost that can be done is to extract it, just as it is, bursting the 
cells within which it is enclosed, by crushing the olives and then 
pressing them." "Olive oil is found, not made." 

One may fail to extract it, one may injure it in the process, it 
may lose in quality or even become rancid by careless handling or 
storage, but the one and only object of the oil mill is to extract, 
clarify and store the oil, while experience and skill will undoubtedly 
add much to the result of a given olive harvest, the fact remains 
that the oil is made and in the berry. A mortar and pestle will 
crush olives and the oil and water can be strained out, through cloth 
or crash by hand. The difference is not of process but of quantity 
to be dealt with. This should be clearly understood in California, 
as this interest grows. It is not beyond credence that the happy 
possessor of a few producing olive trees would be willing to devote 
the time and labor necessary to extracting his own oil for household 
use, with the simplest of home machinery and especially when the 
physician tells him the value of olive oil as both medicine and food; 



10 



138 



THE OLIVE 



and the gourmet of the many additions it may make to the home 
menu; while the analyst warns him of the detected adulterations 
not merely of so called imported oils, but of adulterations passed off 
on the community as " California olive oil."* 
The analysis of the berry shows the following 



•esult 



Pulp 
75.02 



Pit 
24.98 

100.00 



(Water , 51.25 

1 Fibre 14.38 

(Oil 9.39 

Oil of stone 

Fiber of stone 20.00 

Oil of seed 62 

Fiber of seed 16 

Loss 4.20 



OIL 



9.39 



.62 



WASTE 

14.38 

20.00 
.16 



Total , 100.00 



10.00 



34.54 



The following is the chemical analysis of the olive : 

Potash 57.336 

Soda 5.170 

Lime 5.115 

Magnesia 0.130 

Oxide of Iron 0.305 

Chloride 0.111 

Phosphoric acid 0.929 

Sulphuric acid 0.533 

Siliceous acid 0.356 

Carbonic acid 29.985 



100.000 

THE COMPOSITION OF OLIVE OIL. 





Stearine 


Palmatin 


Oleine 




C. 17 H. 110 O. 6 


C. 51 H. 98 O. 6 


C. 57 H. 104 O. 6 


Carbon 


76, 6 


75, 9 


77, 4 


Hydrogen 


12, 4 


12, 2 


11, 8 


Oxygen 


11, 0 


11, 9 


10, 8 




100, 0 


100, 0 


100, 0 



*See the late statement by the Horticultural Society of the adulterations practiced in San Francisco. 
—Pacific Kural Jt'ress, July 7th, 1S88. 



THE OLIVE 



139 



The oil of the pulp is rich and of a delicious flavor, that of the 
stone is dark and cloudy, that of the seed contains essential oil, 
while the skin in its little cells contains an essential and resinous 
oil in small quantities. These oils of stone, seed and skin, far from 
adding to the oil of the pulp, would be a serious injury if not in 
such small quantities. From this it is obvious that in cultivating 
olives for oil, the varieties with much pulp and proportionately 
small seeds, should be selected, as is always done in the true oil 
countries. The proportion of oil to berry as given by reliable authori- 
ties runs from ten to twenty per cent, in weight. 

The Messrs Rae of Leghorn, olive oil exporters, in their pamph- 
let on the olive, give fourteen to twenty per cent, and eighteen to 
twenty for the finest oil varieties. Mr Cooper's best result as given, 
was ten and twelve per cent. Mr Luclovico Gaddi, and the agri- 
cultural manager at Santa Clara College, as well, estimate that forty 
pounds of berries will produce one gallon of oil, which is about 
eighteen per cent.; but this of course refers to well dried berries. 

It should be said that California olive culture is so comparatively 
recent and limited, that reliable statistics can hardly be expected. 
But it may be safely asserted that certain exaggerated statements 
which have appeared in print, as to percentage of oil to berries, will 
not be verified even in this exceptional soil and climate. 

In view of the fact that the processes of the oil mill, are singly 
to "extract" the oil, the clarifying, whether by simple deposit or by 
passing the oil through refining material, being but a part of the 
general work of separating the oil from the solid and watery parts 
of the berry, it is evident that unless some mechanical difficulty 
renders delay necessary or convenient, the berries will yield a better 
oil if this be extracted immediately or very soon after their gather- 
ing. That this is true is now admitted by all writers of value, and 
by all manufacturers of the fine grades of oil. ; The belief that olives 
retained for long periods in the store house produce as good an oil, 
and much more than the freshly worked — a belief held by the rus- 



140 



THE OLTVE 



tics in the times of Cato and Columella, and controverted by both 
these writers — still holds its own among the more ignorant peasants 
and notably in Spain, where olives are often stored for months and 
occasionally for a year. 

Again, the immediate extraction within twenty four hours as 
advised by Messrs Rae as the best usage of Tuscany, will not always 
be possible as such a complete system demands very abundant facili- 
ties of machinery and labor. No one who has engaged in oil extrac- 
tion will be inclined to deny that the process is, at least, somewhat 
more difficult with absolutely fresh olives. While the immediate 
expression of oil is undoubtedly the best system, and growing in 
favor and practice, it must be admitted that, in all probability the 
greater proportion of olive oil and even the higher grades of oil are 
made after the olives have been partially dried. The question is, 
how to avoid any danger to the olive, if drying is found necessary 
or convenient. The purpose of drying is to remove as much of the 
water of the olive as possible. Evidently any tendency to soften- 
ing will be simply the beginning of decay and will injure the 
quality of the oil, and any possibility of mould must be avoided. 

The Italian system is to spread the freshly picked olives on floors 
of porous brick, not more than five inches deep and allow free pas- 
sage of air above them, while two or three times a day, they are 
carefully and gently raked over. If drying is decided upon, or the 
olives must await manufacture, this is the simplest and safest way for 
a natural process. 

Mr Ellwood Cooper of Santa Barbara has adopted a system of arti- 
ficial drying of his own invention, similar to fruit dryers, which he 
has described in his work on olive culture and which he finds satis- 
factory. Naturally this avoids certain difficulties in fresh pressing 
and certain clangers in natural drying. 

The first process of the oil mill is the crushing of the olives. The 
crushing machine generally used, consists of a circular tub or trough 
of stone or bricks covered with cement, having a stone floor on 



THE OLIVE 



141 



which revolves a heavy stone wheel on an axle, one end of which is 
attached to and works on a pin or pivot set in the center of the 
trough. This mill wheel crushes and grinds as it rolls over the 
olives, which are constantly pushed by a scraper into its path. 
This may be worked by hand, by horses, or oxen, by steam or 
water power. The stone should be non porous lest it absorb oil 
which may become rancid. 

The size of the crusher will vary with the needs of a given mill. 
Presses are of various kinds. The Italians, Spaniards and French 
generally use a screw press (descending.) This may be worked by 
hand, by horse or ox power, by water or steam. In any case the 
pomace is put into sacks of jute called "bruscole," which are then 
piled up, eight, ten, or a dozen high, or into a steel cage with or 
without crash to contain it, and placed under the descending screw 
of the press. 

Mr. Cooper uses a beam press such as is used in cider making. 
The pomace is held in place by wooden crates and Russian crash. 
He suggests the oleomargarine press as probably the best for olive 
oil expression. In both Italy and Spain powerful hydraulic presses 
are used either with the jute sacks or the iron cage. They are sim- 
ilar to the hydraulic presses of the wineries, and in fact these lat- 
ter can be used for oil extraction. 

The objection to the hydraulic press is, that with it one runs the 
risk of suddenly applying too great pressure and what is needed in 
expressing olive oil is not sudden, but gentle and constantly increas- 
ing pressure. If the pomace of olives is suddenly subjected to 
extreme pressure, no oil at all will flow; for this reason hydraulic 
presses have been altogether abandoned in some parts of Spain, as 
in ignorant hands they did not give satisfactory results. The great 
advantage of the beam press is, that it is impossible to apply the 
pressure in any other way but by a steady and gentle increase, as 
more weight is placed on the end of the beam. But after all, in 
intelligent hands the hydraulic press is preferable, for if it is 



142 



THE OLIVE 



properly used, the amount of pressure required may be exactly 
graduated. In the first pressure, usage differs as to the employment 
of water. It must be clearly understood, that the olive berry con- 
tains a large amount of water from which the oil separates itself 
when the mixed liquid is allowed to rest after the expression, and 
that the employment of water is not for an adulteration, or other 
improper purpose, but simply to free the oil and water in the berry 
and ease the process of pressing. Doubtless oil extracted without 
the use of water is appreciably finer to an expert "olive oil taster,'' 
but it is doubtful if very much of such oil reaches the market. 
The usage of mills differs. The most extreme divisions of oils 
would be, that of the first crushing and the first pressure ; that of 
the same pomace crushed a second time ; that of the same pomace 
treated with cold water ; that of the same pomace treated with hot 
water ; that of this pomace ground fine, placed in an agitator and 
heated with water, until the stones fall to the bottom and are 
carried away, and the water and lighter matter passed into settling 
tanks, where the oil is skimmed off, while a little more is made by 
another pressure; this is called washed oil. This same pomace in- 
stead of being treated as above, may be treated by the bi-sulphate of 
carbon process at special factories, with a larger percentage of oil as 
a result. Finally a low grade of oil is skimmed from the water used 
in collecting the oil, and which is carried out of the mill and de- 
posited in tanks called from the low quality of the oil, " the inferno." 

The term "Virgin oil" is used so variously, that it is difficult to 
define it with accuracy. It is used for the first run of oil whether 
made with or without water ; it is also sometimes used for early oil 
— the first of the season ; the most exact use seems to be the oil 
which flows either without any pressure by the weight of the pom- 
ace in the racks or the cages, or just as the pressure begins to tell. 
Watching the press one sees pure oil and water run out, and if this 
is taken from the receiver at once, the oil and water separate quick- 
ly, and the oil is exceedingly rich and fine. As the pressure goes 



THE OLIVE 



143 



on the liquid becomes tinged with purple from the coloring matter 
in the berry. 

Admitting the definition as correct, we should have five possible 
qualities of palatable oil, and two, suitable only for manufacturing 
purposes. It is unnecessary to say that Virgin oil as defined above 
is not an article of trade. A little is probably made on large es- 
tates, for the proprietors, and for their friends consumption, nor is 
it necessary to say, that the four possible edible oils are reduced to 
two or three. 

If a run is made without water, the second run will probably be 
made with hot water, or two runs without water and then the hot 
water or with cold water at once, and then hot water. Cold water is 
not injurious, but oil gathered by the hot water process is not as fine, 
and does not keep as well as that expressed without water or with the 
use of the cold, Extreme heat is dangerous to oil at all stages of ex- 
pression and storage; and for this reason Italians doubt the safety of 
artificial drying even where they consider drying necessary or advanta- 
geous. After the expression of the oil, it separates from the water 
and small particles of the berry w T hich have passed the sacks or 
cage, and rises to the surface, when it is carefully skimmed off and 
placed in other vessels to settle; thence drawn off again from the 
surface, and clarified by being passed through a layer of filtering 
cotton, filtering paper, or even bone charcoal. It is then fit to place 
in the storage receptacle. During the process of crushing, pressing, 
depositing and clarifying, too extreme cold chills the oil and checks 
its flow and clarification, and in cold weather it is desirable to have 
moderate artificial heat in the mill. When clarified, the oil should 
be put in a cool place, and in cool receivers, of which tanks of tiles, 
brick lined with marble, or glass, and the Italian glazed terra-cotta 
lined tanks are the best. The Italians use wooden tanks lined with 
tin and also brick tanks lined with a fine cement. Wood is not 
desirable, the oil which soaks into it is liable to turn rancid. Again 
wood alone, lacks the coolness required, at least in an Italian sum- 



144 



THE OLIVE 



mer. A sufficiency of pure water and extreme cleanliness, are 
essentials of oil production for table use. Not only must the water 
used on the pomace be pure, but all the different parts of the 
machinery must be kept clean by constant washing, and mere water 
is not sufficient. The best cleaning method seems to be, washing 
with hot water and soda (14 ounces to a gallon of water) then, with 
fresh hot water remove the soda, and finally rinse out well with cold 
water. These washings must be frequent a nd careful, of machinery 
crusher, press, sacks, cage and crash, receiving vessels, and every- 
thing with which the oil comes in contact. Smoke from fires must 
be prevented, and smoking must be forbidden in the mill, oil takes 
a taste very readily, and the mill should be at a distance from barn 
and stable. It is a common thing in old Italian mills to have the 
horse power in the mill. This is of course very undesirable. 

The alterations to which olive oil is subject are various, and 
although numerous cures have been suggested, no remedy has ever 
yet been successful when once the alteration has commenced Some- 
times the disagreeable taste can be so disguised that it is not per- 
ceptible to the consumer; but that is only a temporary expedient, 
and cannot be termed a remedy. The most dangerous as well as 
the most common of the maladies to which olive oil is liable are: 

Natural Rancidity. — This can be imparted not only by the care- 
lessness of the maker, or by the uncleanliness of the utensils used 
in making, or storing the oil, but also through the nature of the 
soil in which the trees are growing. If the earth is very rich, and 
the growth of the trees is exceedingly rank or strong, this forced 
vegetation will produce fruit that will impart a peculiar taste to the 
oil, which will at once be detected by a delicate palate, and in a 
short time it will become so rancid that its market value will be 
greatly depreciated. 

Taste of the Worm. — This is only observable when the fruit has 
been attacked by the Dacus oleae. Sometimes the oil is so injured 
that it can only be used for industrial purposes. 



THE OLIVE ROT 

^ _ PlateXVT 



PLATE XVI. — THE ROT. 



Fig. 1. A section of an olive branch recently attacked by the 
rot (a) increase of cambium, (enlarged nine times.) 

Fig. 2. Another similar section, showing herbaceous growth,, 
(nine times enlarged.) 

Fig. 3. Transverse section showing the tubercles of the rot have 
reached the heart of the tree. 

Fig. 4. A diseased branch (natural size) showing at d how the 
bark splits from the wood, leaving it intact. 



THE OLIVE 



145 



Dry Taste. — When a very dry season occurs, with frequent and 
intensely hot winds, the growth is checked, the stem of the fruit is 
dried, and the berries get hard, dry, and shriveled. In this case 
the oil acquires a peculiar woody flavor, which, however, is not 
detected by all consumers. 

Acquired Odors. — The oil will most readily absorb any odor 
to which it may be exposed, and when this is derived from tobacco 
smoke, onions, manure, etc., it greatly deteriorates its value. A 
smoky chimney in the neighborhood of the room where the oil is 
being made, or any lack of cleanliness, will injure the oil greatly. 

Taste of the Cask. — This can be transmitted either by the vessels 
in which the oil is placed, if not made and kept scrupulously clean, 
or by contact with the tools and other appliances used in making it. 

Absolute Rancidity. — Many things contribute to rancidity in 
olive oil, such as excessive heat, contact with the air, want of regu- 
lar racking, contact with metals that can be dissolved by the 
natural acids of the oil, and other causes too numerous, and not of 
sufficient importance to mention. 

It hardly seems possible to exaggerate the importance to the 
United States of olive culture as an added agricultural interest, pro- 
ductive of an article of such high value for medicinal use, and of 
such varied benefit as food, both in the every day dishes of a family 
table and the luxurious plats of the artistic chef. 

While California is the most favored of the United States for the 
culture of the olive, there is a large Territory besides capable of it, 
and, although the home demand will probably grow even more 
rapidly than the production, it seems safe to assert that pure olive 
oil can be produced in the United States with profit, at a price so 
reasonable as to put it on the list of our exports. Olive culture is 
still in its infancy, but it seems as if the time had fully arrived for 
its importance to be recognized by National and State Government, 
and indeed the Agricultural Department at Washington has com- 
menced its study. As a culture it is one of the most ancient, and 



146 



THE OLIVE 



the experience of the old countries must be of great value in the 
development of an extensive olive interest here. What might not 
be the value to this State of the knowledge, skill, and experience of 
a trained expert on the culture of the olive and the processes of oil 
expressing, if the services of such a one could be secured for a suffi- 
ciently extended time to allow of a fair application of his knowledge 
to the new country, soil, climate and conditions ! Certainly such 
an experiment would be less costly in the end, and more satisfac- 
tory, than any attempt to send an American abroad to study the 
culture. It is more than probable than in many places the varia- 
tions of conditions of climate and soil may compel deviation from 
the standard methods of other oil countries as the interest develops, 
and still it is necessary to know their rules, the result of so many 
years experience. Considering the wonderful adaptability of the 
American mind to the new, and its tendency to improve methods 
and processes where invention can suggest more convenient ways 
or labor-saving machinery, we need not fear to prophecy some great 
advance in olive culture and in oil producing processes as they 
become American interests. 



THE END. 



QT 



ISM 1 



if 



C$5 




— 26 — 



La « Progress » y la « Governor » de Hornsby, por el 
Sr. Temple, de Cordoba. 

La « Dodge, » por el Sr. Hall, del Rosario. 

Cuadro de « Samuelson. » 

Una de « Alexander Jack & Sons. » 

Pero solo entraron nueve al concurso, no habiendolo 
hecho las demas, probablemente por falta de caballos 6 de 
conductores apropiados. 

Habiase dividido de antemano el trigal en que debia ha- 
cerse el ensayo, en pequenas areas de 1 0 varas de ancho 
por 300 de largo, y cada maquina se coloco frente a la 
que la cupo en suerte. 

A una senal convenida, se pusieron todas en movimiento 
y fue ciertamente aquel un momento de grande solem- 
uidad y espectativa. 

Facil fue' ver desde luego que todas marchaban con regu- 
laridad. A medida que adelantaban, como cortadas por una 
mano invisible, caian las espigas sobre una plataforma pre- 
paradapara recibirlas; y de esta plataforma, las arrojaba un 
rastrillo movido por la misma maquina, dejandolas arregla- 
das en gavillas a iguales distancias con la mayor sime- 
tria. 

Antes de mucho habian terminado su tarea en el orden 
siguiente : 

La Wood en 25 minutos. 

La Governor de Hornsby §18. 

La Dodge 29. 

La Bookeye . 31 . 

La impresion en todos los que asistian a esta prueba 
no pudo ser mas satisfactoria, siendo para aquellos que 
nunca habian tenido ocasion de presenciar el trabajo de es- 
tos instrumentos admirables una verdadera revelacion, 



— 27 — 



Examinado prolijamente elterreno, se vio que con carta 
diferencia todas habian hecho im trabajo satisfactorio. El 
trigo habia sido perfectamente cortado ; pocas 6 ningunas 
espigas se advertian en el suelo, y las gavillas se encontra- 
ban convenientemente arregladas. Para todos quedo 
demostrado que uno de los mas dificiles problemas de 
la agricultura estaba defmitivamente resuelto. Con cual- 
quiera de las maquinas que se habian ensayado, podia el 
labrador recoger su cosecha enun breyisimo tiempo, dismi- 
nuyendo inmensamente los peligros, y los gastos que hacen 
muchas veces ilusorias sus ganancias. 

En un ensayo tan limitado, no es posible, en mi opinion, 
dejar establecido el merito relativo de cada maquina. Que 
una llenase en menos tiempo su cometido, bien pudo depen- 
der de quetuviera mejores cabailos 6 los apurara mas. Y la 
que quedo rezagada de unos pocos minutos, acaso encontro 
algun entorpecimiento en su camino. 

Aun mas, dada una perfecta igualdad de condiciones, no 
basta que una maquina corte mas rapidamente que otra, para 
que pueda considerarse superior, y recomendarse como tal. 
Es esta, apenas, una de las muchas calidades que deben te- 
nerse en cuenta. 

« El juicio de las maquinas agncolas,—- dice Mr. Grand- 
voinnet, en su interesante informe acerca de las maquinas 
agricolas exhibidas en la ultima esposicion universal de Pa- 
ris,— es la tarea mas pesada que pueda imponerse a un 
hombre de conciencia. A si, continua, cuando tomamos en 
cuenta la carga impuesta a los jurados de instruments y 
maquinas de agricultura, nos llena de satisfaccion que haya 
en nuestro pais tantos hombres animosos que se sientan 
bastante capaces para echarla sobre si. » 

» i Cual es la regla que debe seguirse en el juicio de las 
maquinas agncolas? sepreguntael mismo Mr, Grandvoinnet,. 



— 28 — 



Y despues de miiy oportunas considerations, reasume su 
pensamiento en esta forma: 

» Para que unamaquina sea aceptada en la practica, no 
puede haber sino una 6 mas de las razones siguientes : 

» 1 0 Que el costo real del trabajo hecho por ella, sea infe- 
rior al costo del trabajo que puede ser hecho Amano. 

» 2° Que el trabajo hecho por la maquina, sea mas per- 
fecto que el hecho k mano. 

» 3° Que el trabajo hecho por la maquina, sea hecho con 
mayor rapidez. 

» La perfeccion del trabajo y la rapidez con que es hecho, 
no siendo en realidad, en virtud del axioma ingles, que el 
tiempo es dinero, sino una disminucion en el precio de 
costo del trabajo, estas tres razones que aconsejan el uso de 
una maquina, pueden reducirse a una sola maxima, que 
sera la base del juicio comparativo acerca de su merito: 

» El precio del costo real de la suma de trabajo hecho 
por una maquina, es el solo criterio de su utilidad. » 

En efecto : si una maquina no hace el trabajo mas barato 
que el que se hace a mano ; si no lo hace mejor ; si no lo 
hace mas rapidamente ; en una palabra, si tornado todo en 
cuenta, no lohace mas economicamente que el que se hace 
a mano, nada aconsejaria su adopcion, y si por un error de- 
plorable, fuese adoptada, muy pronto desapareceria en la 
practica. Por el contrario, una maquina no es definitiva- 
mente adoptada, sino cuando satisface a alguna de las tres 
condiciones arriba espresadas ; pero entonces, es para no 
desaparecer jamas. 

De manera que, si la perfeccion de unamaquina se repre- 
senta por 100 puntos, por ejemplo, estos 100 puntos cor- 
responded k la suma de dinero que el uso de esta ma- 
quina importa para el agricultor, ypodran serdivididos entre 
las diversas calidades de la misma maquina, esto es, entre 



— 29 — 

las diversas vent aj as que su uso ofrece. Si se tratase de una 
maquina de trillar, por ejemplo, la eantidad de trigo que 
fcrilla en un tiempo dado, el grado de limpieza en que lo deja, 
la mayor 6 menor rotura del grano, serian los puntos a 
considerar para apreciar su mento. 

Siguiendo este sistema, que me parece el mas racional, la 
Sociedad de agricultores de Francia, quepresidia Mr. Drou- 
yn de L'Huis, en el ultimo concurso de segadoras que tuvo 
lugar el ano proximo pasado, juzgo que, para apreciar el 
merito de una maquina de segar, debian tenerse en cuenta 
las calidades siguientes : 

1 a La regularidad deltrabajo. 

2 a La manera como hace la gavilla. 

3 a La manera como hace el corte mas 6 menos alto. 

i a Que no desgrane el trigo. 

5 a Lafuerzade traccion que exije. 

6 £ La eantidad de trabajo que hace en un tiempo dado. 

7 a El precio relativo de la maquina.. 

8 a Su mecanismo. 

Y fijando 100 puntos para representar la perfection de 
la maquina que reuniera a entera satisfaccion estas diversas 
calidades, los dividio en la forma siguiente : 

20 por la regularidad del trabajo. 

20 por el engavillado. 

12 por la facilidad de arreglar el corte. 

1 0 por el no desgranar. 

10 por la traccion. 

1 0 por la eantidad de trabajo hecho en un tiempo dado. 

1 0 por el precio de la maquina. 
. 8 por su mecanismo. 

En los ensayos que tuvieron lugar en Senlis y Petit-Bourg, 
la maquina Progress de Hornsby obtuvo 74 de estos 
100 puntos, y el primer premio, debido sobre todo a la 



~ 30 — 



regularidad del trabajo, a la facilidad para arreglar el 
corte, al no desgranar, y a sus calidades de traccion y 
escelencia de mecanismo, aunque el engavillado no hu- 
biera alcanzado la perfeccion que fuera de desear, ni hi- 
ciera el trabajo tan rapidamente como otras segadoras. 
' Es de esperarse que el jury formado de personas com- 
petentes, al juzgar el merito de las diver sas segadoras que 
entraron al concurso, haya tenido en cuenta estas diversas 
calidades, que no era facil fueran apreciadas por los que 
asistiamos a aquella fiesta como meros espectadores. Una 
objecion, sin embargo, se hard a su fallo que no sera facil 
salvar. 

Es la gloria de la maquina de cor tar alfalfa de Hornsby, 
haber alcanzado el primer premio en el concurso de la so- 
ciedad real de agricultura de Inglaterra despues de nueve 
dias de ensayos consecutivos. Los representantes de la mis- 
ma maquina, — la de cortar pasto, — rehusaron tomar parte 
en el concurso de los.agricultores de Francia a que he hecho 
referenda, si la duracion de los ensayos no era, por lo 
menos, de cinco 6 seis dias, no considerando serias las 
pruebas que se limitaran a uno 6 dos cuartos de hora. 

Sin duda que es esto exagerado : no podra menos de re- 
conocerse, sin embargo, que la prueba de unos pocos minu- 
tes, no es bastante para poder apreciar el merito relativo de 
una maquina, sobre todo cuando todas han llegado a un 
grado de perfeccion capaz de satisfacer a los mas dificiles y 
exigentes. 

Las nueve maquinas que entraron al ensayo se encontra- 
ban en este caso. Todas llenaron a entera satisfaccion su 
tarea. Debo, sin embargo, observar que se objeto a las 
de construccion inglesa, las de Hornsby, Samuelson, 
etc., todas dehierro, supeso escesivo, y que la opinion se 
dividio entre dos de construccion americana, la Wood, 



y la Bookeye. La de Dodge, tambien americana, no es 
sino una perfecta imitacion de esta ultima, sin mas dife- 
rencia que tener la cuchilla cortadora atras. 

La Wood (L. 1 ) se distingue entre todaspor la regula- 
ridad de su marcha ; por el admirable mecanismo con que 
atrae las espigas sobre la cuchilla, y hace la gavilla por un 
movimiento automatico que imita de la manera mas inge- 
niosa la accion del brazo del hombre. La Bookeye ( L. 2), 
por su ligereza de traccion (poco peso), por la solidez y 
perfeccion de su mecanismo, circunstancias muy importan- 
tes entre nosotros, donde son dificiles las reparaciones, y 
escasos los buenos bueyes 6 caballos ; y finalmente, por 
la facilidad sin igual con que se adapta a cortar trigo 6 
alfalfa, sin mas operacion que cambiar una barra de hierro, 
sacando 6 poniendo un perno. 

Son estas dos maquinas las que gozan de mayor acepta- 
cion en esta Provincia. 

Cada una tiene sus calorosos apasionados. Parece que 
en algunos puntos esta mas generalizada la Wood, y que las 
colonias de Santa-Fe prefieren la Bookeye. Por mi parte, 
puedo agregar mi testimonio personal en favor de esta ultima. 

Dos anos ha, durante la guerra del Paraguay, sembra- 
mos doscientas cuadras de alfalfa en nuestro establecimiento 
de Campana. La semilla no era buena, y el primer corte 
vino con una abundancia estraordinaria de nabo y de 
mostaza. La fuerza de estas plantas era tal, que un hom- 
bre a caballo no podia abrirse paso al trayes del espeso 
tejido de sus ramas. La tarea de cortar semejante masa 
de vejetacion parecia inabordable. Con 5 maquinas Boo- 
keye, si bien con no poco trabajo, se llevo a cabo, sin em- 
bargo, sin mas perdida que la de algunos dientes de la 
cuchilla, que no resistian a la dureza de los troncos, ya 
secos en una gran parte, y de un grosor estraordinario. 



Aunque no entr6 al concurso, merece una mencion es- 
pecial una maquina, tambien de Wood, por su construc- 
tion original y el doble objeto k que era destinada. Im- 
pulsada para adelante por cuatro eaballos, al mismo tiem- 
po que cortaba las espigas a la altura de dos pi6s, mas 6 
menos, por medio de una faja de lona que jiraba a la 
man era de una cadena sin fin, las ecliaba sobre un 
carro, que la seguia a la par. (Lam. 3). 

Facil fu6 ver en la practica que se exigia demasiado. 
Era dificil manejar los cuatro eaballos obligados a una 
tarea & que no estan acostumbrados. Vencida esta difi- 
cultad, quedaba otra to da via, era preciso que el carro que 
debia ir recojiendo las espigas, marchara al mismo paso 
que la maquina, y siempre a la misma distancia — Otras 
veces sucedia que una rafaga de viento hacia volar las es- 
pigas. Pero no era esto lo peor. La maquina que tenia 
que cortar muy arriba, dejaba un gran numero de aquellas 
espigas que no se encontraban a la altura requerida. 

Fue evidente para todos que este mecanismo compli- 
cado no podia tener entre nosotros una esplicacion prac- 
tica — Podra, tal vez, servir en aquellos paises donde se 
practica la agricultura que se llama intensive/,, es decir, 
aquella que aplica mucho capital a una superficie pequena, 
y en casos escepcionales ; cuando todo el trigo estuviera 
perfectamente igual, a la misma altura, y en momentos 
en que no soplara viento alguno. 

Es ya bastante exijir de una maquina que corte y que 
engaville, y quelo haga bien. 

Nada es, sin embargo, imposible & la ciencia en nues- 
tros dias. 

En el ultimo informe del Departamento de agricultura de 
los Estados Unidos encuentro que en 1869 se concedio pa- 
tente d una Segadora que ataba las gavillas. El trigo cai a 



— 33 — 



sobre una plataforma en forma de piano inclinado, y se 
detenia ante un obstaculo. Cuando el conductor juzgaba 
que se habia reunido bastante, por un movimiento del 
pie" que apretaba un resorte, retiraba el obstaculo, la ga- 
villa caia entonces a un cajon, y al caer, dos brazos de 
hierro le ponian una ligadura, y la dejaban atada. Segun 
el informe de que tomo esta noticia, el ensayo de esta 
maquina fue" satisfactorio ; no la veo, sin embargo, re- 
comendada en ningun cat&logo, y esto me induce k creer 
que en la practica no ha correspondido & las esperanzas 
que hizo nacer la primera prueba, como con tanta fre- 
cuencia sucede. 

Se&me permitido ahora con motivo de esta m&quina una 
reminiscencia historica que no carece de interes. 

Esta maquina de segar, que consideramos hoy tan 
gran novedad y tan gran progreso, era familiar a los an- 
tiguos Galos ! Y aqai si qu3 viene bien exclamar con el filo- 
sofo : Nihil novum sub-sole, nada hay nuevo bajo el Sol.... 
ni aun en materias de maquinas.... yde segar. Segun la 
deseripcion que nos ha dejado Plinio, la maquina de los 
Galos estaba montada sobre dos ruedas y su parte de 
adelante a la altura de un metro, se encontraba ar- 
mada de una larga serie de pequenos dientes destinados 
a cortar las canas del trigo. Al ser empujada por bueyes 
6 caballos, las espigas caian a un cajon colocado atras de 
las partes cortantes. Palladius hace los may ores elogios 
de esta maquina que, dice, haber sido muy comun y muy 
apreciada en aquellos remotos tiempos. 

« Los habitantes de las llanuras de la Galia, dice este dis- 
tinguido escritor, se sirven para su cosecha de un aparato 
con cuyo ausilio el trabajo del buey se sostituye al del hom- 
bre. Consiste este aparato en un carro montado sobre dos 
pequenas ruedas, y cuyos cuatro lados estdn guarnecidos 



— u — 



de tablas inclinadas hacia adentro, de manera que la parte 
de arriba es mas espaciosa que el fondo. El lado de ade- 
lante es mas bajo que los otros, y esta armado de dientes 
encorvados para arriba y colocados de manera que deten- 
gan las espigas. Empujado contra el trigo por un buey, 
que debe ser muy manso y obediente a la voz del conduc- 
tor, la paja se enreda entre los dientes del peine, se rompe, 
y la espiga cae dentro del carro. El conductor que dirije 
la operacion sube 6 baja el peine segun la altura de las 
espigas, y en unas cuantas idas y venidas todo el trigal 
queda segado. Este sistema es usado en los terrenos lla- 
nos, y en aquellos en que se hace poco caso de la paja. » 

La maquina de los Galos seria el gran desideratum para 
nosotros, que para nada utilizamos la paja. 

j Que ventaja no seria tener que trillar solo las espigas, 
que la misma maquina habia ya recojida ! 

Es singular que esta idea de los barbaros de la Galia, 
que sin duda se perdio en la oscuridad de la noche que 
siguio a la caida del Imperio Romano, haya necesitado 
veinte siglos para aparecer de nuevo. 

Fue recien en 1 808 que Smith de Dealton y el Esco- 
s^s Bell tuvieron el pensamiento de cortar el trigo meca- 
nicamente. La maquina que para este objeto construyeron 
era tambien empujada contra el trigo , y ponia en movi- 
miento una cierra circular contmua. A pesar de la gran 
velocidad que se procuro dar a esta cierra, la maquina de 
Smith necesitaba ser puesta en movimiento, y al menor 
inconveniente se atoraba (permitaseme esta espresion tec- 
nica) y era necesaria mucha perdida de tiempo y mucho 
trabajo para dark nuevo impulso. 

Era en America donde la tierra abunda y faltan los bra- 
zos, donde con mas urgencia se sentia la necesidad de reco- 
ercon prontitud y a poco costo elgrano que forma el prin- 



— 35 — 



cipal alimento del hombre ; y era de esperarse que el genio 
Americano, tan fecundo en grandes invenciones, no faltara 
a tan imperioso llamamiento. 

En 1831 Mac-Cormick, de Chicago (Illinois), modified de 
tal manera la segadora de Bell, que con razon puede decir 
que la creo de nuevo. 

En vez de ser empujada contra el trigo, lo que exige ca- 
ballos en estremo mansos y diestros, su segadora era tira- 
da en la forma ordinaria. Mac-Cormick comprendio por 
primera vez que una rueda que gira sobre el suelo al re- 
dedor de su eje, es una maquina a la que puede ser apli- 
cada una resistencia proporcionada a la fuerza de trac- 
cion, ya sea que esta resistencia provenga de un peso 
colocado sobre el vehiculo que gravite sobre la rueda, ya 
a un organo mecanico que tome su movimiento del mismo 
ejey ejecute diversas funciones. Sobre este sencillisimo 
principio, hoy fecundo en sus aplicaciones, fundo todo el 
mecanismo de su segadora, que es el moclelo que han segui- 
do despues todos los cons true tores, trayendo cada uno, 
con el contingente de su inteligencia, mejoras importantes, 
que, luego que espiren los diversos privilegios que las han 
agrantido, han de conducir al fin a darnos una maquina 
que nada deje que desear. 

La fuerza de traccion que hace jirar las ruedas de la 
maquina, se comunica por medio de ruedas dentadas, que 
admiten distintas combinaciones, a un eje del que arrancan 
todos los movimientos necesarios para ejecutar la cosecha ; 
a saber, cortar el trigo; inclinarlo sobre una plataforma 
para que caiga a ella por su propio peso; formar la gavi- 
11a y arrojarla al lado de la maquina. 

La otra innovacion de Mac-Cormick, no menos feliz, 
consiste en sostituir la cierra circular de Smith por una 
cuchilla armada d;r dientes triangulares que juega con 



— 36 - 



gran velocidad por un movimiento de va y viene, entre unas 
puas de acero, en forma de punta de lanza, cuyo objeto 
principal es garantirla cachilla cortadora de ios troncos, 
huesos 6 alambres, que rara vez dejan de encontrarse 
aun en los terrenos mejor preparados. Esta cuchilla, que 
se apoya en una de sus estremidades sobre una pequena 
rueda, es arrastrada por la maquina a uno de sus costa- 
dos a la altura de dos, tres 6 mas pulgadas de la tierra, 
de manera que eorta el trigo con toda su paja. Con fa- 
cilidad puede arreglarse de manera que lo corte mas 6 me- 
nos bajo. El movimiento de va y viene es infinitamente 
superior al circular, y se puede decir que esta deflnitiva- 
mente conquistado. 

El perfeccionamiento de estas maquinas ha sido lento. 
Un arado, una maquina de trillar pueden ensayarse en cual- 
quier tiempo; pero solo hay 15 dias, y alo sumo 30, para 
apreciar las ventajas 6 defectos de una segadora. 

La maquina primitiva de Mac-Cormick, que tan profun- 
da sensacion causo en la primera Exposicion Universal 
de Londres, 1851, se descomponia con frecuencia. El 
trigo cortado debia ser recojido inmediatamente por medio 
de un rastrillo, para que no lo pisaran los caballos en la 
vuelta subsiguiente. j Cuantos progresos no senalan las 
maquinas que hoy poseemos ! El trabajo que hacian antes 
varios peones penosamente para dejar espedito el camino, 
lo hace hoy con toda facilidad la misma maquina, arre- 
glando perfectamente las ga villas, de manera que queda 
libre el paso para la vuelta sucesiva. Segun este mas 6 
menos espesa la cosecha, puede arreglarse el mecanismo 
de manera que las ga villas sean mas 6 menos grandes. 
Aun mas, el conductor sin mo verse de su asiento, con 
solo apretar 6 larger un pequeno resorte, puede aumentar 
6 disminuir su tamano. La constmccion de estas ma- 



— 37 — 



quinas es bastante solida, y deja ya poco que desear. 
Todo esta perfectamente previsto y combinado, hasta 
la manera de salvar un obstaculo qut3 inopinadamente 
se -presentara en el camino, y de trasportarse al lugar del 
trabajo como un vehiculo cualquiera. Manejadas por un 
obrero medianamente cuidadoso, duran en servicio activo 
por muchos anos, sin exigir costosas reparaciones, y solo 
de yez en cuando, el cambio de alguna pieza rota 6 gasta- 
da, de que siempre tienen abundante repuesto las casas 
introductoras. 

La maquina de Mac-Cormick pareee ser tadavia la que 
goza de mayor reputation en los Estados-Unidos. Es 
sensible que no se introduzca entre nosotros. La fabrica 
de Chicago construye 40,000 al and. En la ultima Expo- 
sition Universal de Paris, fue la que obtuvo el primer 
premio, mereciendo su autor el honor de ser declarado 
bienhechor de la humanidad; la mas grandiosa reeompen- 
sa a que pueda aspirar el hombre sobre la tierra. Y a la ver- 
dad, que bien lo merecia por los incalculables beneficios que 
su invention ha venido a derramar sobre el mundo entero. 

La maquina de segar, como la de coser, tambien inven- 
tion Americana, son en efecto, de aquellos descubrimien- 
tos que influyen directamente en los destinos de la hu- 
manidad. 

La maquina de coser, bajo suhumilde apariencia, importa 
la emancipation de la mujer. Con su auxilio la mujer 
no necesita ya estar encorvada todo el dia, pasando una 
puntadatras otra. En I hora y 14 m s , p. ej., podra coser 
una camisa que hubiera necesitado 1 4 h s y 1 7 m 3 con el 
trabajo de la aguja. Por otra parte, esta maquina ha de 
producir infalibiemente el efecto que las demas han produ- 
cido siempre. 

Al mismo tiempo que la baratura aumentara sin limites 



— 38 — 



la demanda por los objetos del vestido, el salario de la 
mujer se elevara. En la gran fabrica de ropa hecha de 
Hay em de Paris, las costureras que trabajan con la maqui- 
na ganan % fts. al dia, mientras que las que trabajan con 
la aguja, sola ganan 15 c, y este hecho se reproduce en 
todas partes. Los efectos de esta maquina los palpamos 
diariamente. Ella ha venido a completar los progresos in- 
mensos que han hecho en nuestros dias la produccion de 
las materias destinadas al vestido del hombre y la industria 
de los tejidos. Basta salir a la calle para advertir la in- 
mensa mejora que a otra vista se ha operado en el vestido 
de las gentes, sin que sea necesario ir a buscar objetos 
de comparacion alia en el siglo conocido por el de los 
perfumes, por el uso escesivo que hacian de fuertes 
esencias ami las personas acaudaladas, para disfrazar el 
mal olor consiguiente al uso continuo de una misma ropa. 
Si recordamos que hace apenas un siglo no se conocia el 
algodon ; que la seda venia de la India en caravanas a 
lomo de camello, a traves del desierto, con recargo in- 
menso de costo, y que solo podian usarla los grandes po- 
tentados de la tierra ; que los tejidos de hilo debian ser 
por demas escasos, cuando todavia en el siglo XIV me" 
motivo de grande escandalo en la Corte de Francia, el 
lujo desmedido de la reina Isabel de Baviera, esposa de 
Carlos VI, que se permitia tener dos camisas de hilo en 
su guarda ropa; y finalmente, que, aunque el arte de la 
costura, cuya inversion se atribuye a Enoch, 3400 antes de 
J. C, era conocido desde la mas remota antigiiedad, — nues- 
tra aguja de coser no se conocia antes del siglo XV, lo que 
hace suponer que antes de esta fecha los vestidos se cosian, 
haciendo primero un agujero con la punta de algun instru- 
mento, &la manera que hoy lo practican los zapateros 6 
talabarteros ; si se recuerda todo esto, decia, se compren- 



dera sin dificultad la terrible desnudez en que debia yivir 
el hombre antes de los tieinpos, sin disputa, mas felices que 
hemes alcanzado. La produccion estraordinaria de las ma- 
terias testiles; la admirable rapidez y baratura con que 
por medio de las maquinas mas ingeniosas se convierten 
estas materias en tejidos; y por ultimo, la£acilidad sinigual 
con que la maquina de coser, complemento de todos estos 
progresos, convierte en vestidos estos tegidos, han puesto en 
nuestros dias al alcance de los mas desvalidos, los medios 
de llenar una de las primeras necesidades de la vida. 
Con esta mejora han disminuido notablemente muchas de 
las enfermedades y de las horribles pestes que afligian al 
hombre en los sigios pasados, y que no tenian otra causa 
que el desaseo en que vivia. 

No son menos sensibles los beneficios que ha reportado 
la humanidad de la invencion de Mac-Garmick. 

Facilitando de una manera prodigiosa una de las mas 
pesadas tareas de la agricultura, la segadora ha hecho po- 
sible sembrar grandes superficies, y ha alejado, acaso para 
siempre, la terrible calamidad del hambre, que con tanta 
frecuencia asolaba hace apenas medio sigJo las poblaciones 
de la Europa. Algunos datos estadisticos daran una idea 
mas acabada de las ventajas conquistadas por este admi- 
rable instrumento. 

El distinguido astronomo que dirige el observatorio de 
Cordoba, Mr. Gould, estimaba ha pocos anos en 175,000 
el numero de maquinas de segar en actividad en los Es- 
tados-Unidos. Esta cifra debe haber doblado desde en- 
tonces, pues se calcula en 100,000, el numero de segado- 
ras, que 170 fabricas fundadas para este solo objeto, cons- 
truyen cada ano. Un viagero dice que son tan comunes 
en las chacras Americanas como los arados. 

pi trabajo que una cantidad de maquinas semejantes 



— 40 — 



puede hacer, escede todo c&lculo. Trescientas mil m Aqui- 
nas representan, por lo menos, el trabajo de 3.000,000 de 
hombres, y pueden cortar cada dia la estension de 400 a 
500 legaas cuadradas sembradas de trigo ! j Qui inmen- 
so ahorro de salarios I En una sola cosecha, se ha esti- 
mado en no menos de 100.000,000 de durosl 

Estas cifras colosales esplican la grandeza k que han lle- 
gado nuestros hermanos del Norte, y ponen de manifiesto 
la causa que, aparte de la sabiduria sin igual de sus insti- 
tuciones, mas ha concurrido k crearla. 

Los productos de la agricultura de la Union Americana 
abastecen los mercados del mundo entero. Y sin embargo : 
solo un 1 0 p °/ 0 de su poblacion se ocupa en los trabajos de 
la tierra ; mientras que la Francia ocupa en estos mismos 
trabajos la mitad; la Belgica, un 40 p°/ 0 ; la Inglaterra, un 
20 ; y estan muy lejos de producir tanto. No esnecesario 
decir que este hecho portentoso es debido. a los prodigios de 
la cienciade la mecanica. ^Para que operacion por sen- 
cilla que sea, no han inventado los Americanos una ma- 
quina ? Y cuando la esperiencia ha consagrado sus venta- 
jas, suuso se hace tan general como el de las segadoras. 

Ante la magnitud de resultados semej antes, se com- 
prende la justicia con que el inventor de la segadora ha 
sido colocado entre los bienhechores de la humanidad, y 
no pareceria permitido entrar a discutir las ventajas de su 
invencion. Dire', sin embargo, dos palabras para satisfa- 
cer a aquellos que van aun mas lejos que Santo Tom&s ; 
para aquellos que, debiendo ser los primeros en el ejem- 
plo, ven el progreso, y ..... no lo creen. 

Guiada por un solo hombre, y cambiando bueyes 6 ca- 
ballos una vez al dia, la segadora puede cortar y engavillar 
sin grande esfuerzo, dgs cuadras en diez horas de trabajo. 
La facilidad con que se maneja es tal, que, cuando los ciu- 



dadanos Americanos fueron llamados & la defensa de las 
instituciones de su patria durante la ultima rebelion, las 
madres, las esposas y las hijas de los que cambiaron 
por la espada las pacificas tareas del labrador, — pu- 
dieron levantar con su ausilio las cosechas, que hubieran 
quedado deotra manera abandonadas. Galculando el salario 
del hombre en 30 pesos, y su mantencion en 10; el uso 
6 alquiler de los bueyes 6 caballos, en 20 ; y por ultimo, 
en 80 el interns y amortization del dinero empleado en 
la m&quina,-— el costo de cortar una cuadra sera 70 pesos. 
Es sabido que cortada & mano, no cuesta menos de 200 & 
300 pesos, segun el ano. 

Hase calculado que el corte por la maquina, produce 
un aumento en el rinde de 90 hectolitros por hectarea ; 
es decir, una fanega y media cuartilla por cuadra. So- 
bre una estension de 6 millones y medio de hectareas 
que siembra de trigo, la Francia ganaria 5 millones y me- 
dio de hectolitros, que representan el valor de 110.000,000 
de francos, y que serian bastantes las mas veces para 
llenar el deficit de las malas cosechas, que tanta alarma 
producen en aquella nation, hasta el estremo de compro- 
meter la tranquilidad publica. 

A la diferencia en el precio del corte, que no puede es- 
timarse en menos de 200 pesos, habria pues que agregar 
el aumento en el rinde, que importa otro tanto, y tend re- 
mo s entonces, por lo menos, una ganancia de 400 pesos 
por cuadra en favor de la segadora, comprendido el inte- 
rns y amortizacion del capital empleado en ella. 

Pero todo esto es muy poca cosa, en comparacion de 
la ventaja inapreciable para el labrador, de poder recojer 
su cosecha con la rapidez necesaria. Si el tiempo es di- 
nero en las circunstancias ordinarias de la vida, lo es do- 
blemente en los dias premiosos de la cosecha, en que el 



- 42 - 



retardo de una sola hora, puede hacer perder el fruto de 
todo el ano. 

Para terminar mis observaeiones sobre estas maquinas, 
dire que el Sr. Roldan, Rivadavia 343, que, entiendo, tiene 
el privilegio de introducir las de Bookeye, por arreglo es- 
pecial con el constructor, las vende en esta plaza por los 
precios siguientes : 

Maquinas de segar trigo... 8,500 $ m/c. 6 sea 340 ps. fts. 
Id. de cortar alfalfa. 6,500 « « 2.60 « 
Id. combinadas para 
trigo y alfalfa 9,000 « « 360 « 

La casa de los Sres. Drysdale, Moreno 66, que creo Iam- 
bi on, por un convenio igual, es el unico introductor de la 
«Wood», la espende por los precios siguientes: 

Para trigo.— 9,000 $ m/c. 6 sea 360 ps. fts. 
Id. alfalfa.— 4,000 « « 160 « 
Combinadas para trigo y alfalfa.— 10,000 — 400. 

No obstante que estas maquinas pagan un crecido dere- 
cho a su introduction — 25 p 0 /° sobre un aforo de 1 50 
ps., — y que los gastos de flete y descarga deben ser consi- 
derables, personas que las han hecho venir directamente, 
me aseguran que la diferencia entre el precio de fabrica 
y lo que piden aqui los introductores, es enorme. 

Las yentajas del uso de estas maquinas admirables son 
tanevidentes y tan al alcance del menos advertido, que 
solo la falta absoluta de recursos puede esplicar, que la 
mayor parte de nuestra cosecha se haga todavia por me- 
dio de la hoz. Por otra parte, son tambien tan eyidentes 
las yentajas que reportaria la Republica de la estension de 
su agricultura, y del aumento de su production, que admi- 
ra no se haya pensado en poner al alcance de nuestros la- 



- 43 - 



bradores elementos tan indispensables, y sin los que es 
imposible el principal, sino el unico ramo de nuestra in- 
dustria agricola capaz de un desenvolvimiento conside- 
rable. 

Las circunstancias dificiles porque ha pasado el Tesoro 
Nacional en los ultimos anas, pueden esplicar que se ha- 
yan gravado con tan fuertes derechos objetos, que por su 
Yolumen vienen ya recargados con gastos que doblan casi 
su valor. Es de esperarse de la ilustracion de nuestros le- 
gisladores, que tan luego como la situacion fmanciera de 
la Nation mejore, esos derechos si no desapareciesen del 
todo, sean reducidos a la ultima espresion, a fin deque no 
pesen sobre la fuente misma de nuestra riqueza, que aho- 
gada en su germen, no encuentra espaciopara desarrollarse. 



— 44 — 



MAQUINAS DE CORTAR ALFALFA 



Su mecanismo. — Perfeccion a que ha llegado. — 
Resultado del ensayo. — Otra vez la ((Bookeye)) y 
la ((Wood.)) — Gomparacion entre el precio del 
trabajo por la maquina y por guadana. — Ras- 
trillo de caballo para dar vuelta el pasto. — Idem 
para recogerlo. — Preciosa maquina de. Hornsby 
para afilar las cuchillas. 



El mecanismo de estas maquinas es exactamente el mis- 
mo que el delas de segar, de que acabamos de ocuparnos. 
Solo se diferencian en que la cuchilla es mas estrecha y 
sus dientes tienen filo, en yez de pequenas cierras, & 
manera de la hoz ; en que no tienen, ni necesitan, la pla- 
ta forma que sirve para hacer las gavillas; y finalmente, 
en que cortan mucho mas bajo. Algunas son combina- 
das y sir ven indistintamente para trigo 6 para alfalfa, con 
solo la variacion de la cuchilla, y la remocion 6 adi- 
cion de la plataforma. 



_ 45 ~ 

Las maquinas de segar, si bien muy perfectas ya, 
no han dicho aun su ultima palabra, puedp asegurarse. 
La cana del trigo ofrece poca resistencia ; el brazo de 
hombre la corta sin esfuerzo; mientras tanto, dos bue- 
nos caballos no resisten sin fatiga cuatro horas el trabajo 
de una segadora. Sobre este punto es indudable que 
hay todavia mucho que esperar. Una maquina que, sin 
perjudicar su solidez, fuera mas liviana, y exijiera, por 
consiguiente, menos fuerza de traccion, marcaria un gran 
progreso, sobre todo entre nosotros, donde los buenos 
caballos de tiro 6 los bueyes mansos y diestros son esca- 
sos. El engavillador, que es la parte debil y dificil, es 
aun materia de estudio para los constructores, que to- 
dos los anos anuncian con gran pompa alguna mejo- 
ra. Las de cortar alfalfa, libres de esta complication, 
pertenecen ya a aquella categoria de instrumentos defini- 
tivamente conquistados para la industria, y que han lle- 
gado a un grado tal de perfection, que solo pueden ser 
mejorados por el empleo de materiales mas apropiados a la 
naturaleza del trabajo que de ellos se exije y se es- 
pera. 

Las 4 6 5 guadanadoras que entraron a la prueba traba- 
jaron todas perfectamente, no obstante que el alfalfar en 
que se hacia el ensayo no estaba en las mejores condicio- 
nes. Distinguieronse las mismas que mas habian llamado 
laatencion como segadoras de trigo; la Wood, L, 3, por 
la rapidez con que hizo su tarea; y la Bookeye, L. 4, por 
la circunstancia de cortar la alfalfa enteramente 4 ras de 
tierra, y por la solidez de su mecanismo, que compro- 
bo el hecho de haber encontrado un hueso formidable que 
detuvo su marcha, sin causarle el mas pequeno dano. 

He tenido ya ocasion de decir que usamos ha mas de 
2 anos cinco de estas maquinas Bookeye en nuestro 



— 46 — 

establecimiento de Campana. Han trabajado casi constan- 
temente; algunas piezas se han roto, otras se han gastado, 
y como es facil reponerlas, va realizandose con ellas lo que 
con aquel cuchillo del herrero, que unas veces cambiaba 
de hoja, y otras de cabo, y quedaba siempre el mismo. 

Al ver el servicio perfecto que hacen estas maquinas, 
es de admirar que se use todavia la guadana en alfalfares 
de alguna consideration. Es fuera de to da duda que cor- 
tan mejor, con mas igualdad y mas abajo. Dejan tam- 
bien la alfalfa mas estendida, y mejor preparada para se- 
carse; no en gavillas, como la deja la guadana. No es 
necesario decir que la diferencia entre el gasto del corte 
por la maquina 6 por la guadana es inmenso. 

Un hombre, mudando caballos 6 bueyes cada 4 6 5 ho- 
ras, corta de cuadra y media a dos cuadras por dia. Su- 
poniendo que el hombre gane 30 ps., y estimando lo que 
corresponda al uso de los caballos, y al interes y amortiza- 
tion del capital empleado en la maquina, en 60, el 
corte de una cuadra costara de 45 a 60 ps. Mien- 
tras tanto, no es posible hacer este trabajo a guadana por 
menos de 250 a 300 ps. Habria todavia que tener en 
cuenta, en favor de la maquina, la rapidez de la opera- 
tion, quebasta muchas veces por si sola para salvar una 
cosecha. 

Al mismo tiempo que trabajaban estas maquinas, el re- 
presentante de la casa de los Sres. Wheelright, del Rosario, 
dirijia personalmente y con gran maestria un rastrillo revol- 
vedor, cuyo objeto es dar vuelta el pasto, para que se seque 
mas facilmente. La lam. N 0 5, mejor que estensas espli- 
caciones, hara comprender el mecanismo de este inge- 
nioso instrumento. Las puas de acero de que esta ar- 
mado un cilindro, que pone en movimiento el eje de 
las ruedas con gran velocidad, al rozar la tierra, le- 



— 47 — 



vantan el pasto, que cae como una lluvia para recibir en 
mejor posicion el aire y el sol que lo ha de secar. Con el 
sol abrasador de los meses de Noviembre a Febrero, en 
que se hace entre nosotros la cosecha de alfalfa, poca apli- 
cacion tiene este instrumento. El peligro es mas bien que 
se seque demasiado. Puede ser, sin embargo, de mucha 
utilidad en la primavera, cuando el corte es muy abundan- 
te, 6 en el otono, cuando los rocios son fuertes. Tenemos 
este instrumento en nuestro establecimiento, pero no hemos 
sentido hasta ahora la necesidad de utilizarlo. 

Hay otro rastrillo, que no se probo en los ensayos, 
de una aplicacion mas inmediata, y de grande utilidad. 
Con un solo caballo recoge el pasto que ha cortado la m&- 
quina, dejandolo acomodado en cordones 6 gavillas; y de 
esta manera facilita inmensamente el trabajo de hacer los 
montones que preceden a la formation de la parva. En 
una esplotacion de alguna importancia, es un instrumento 
tan necesario como las maquinas de cortar. Por lo menos 
ahorra el trabajo de 30 peones. Sirve tambien para reco- 
ger las espigas que quedan desparramadas despues de le- 
vant ado el trigo. Persona que lo ha usado para este objeto, 
me asegura que ha recogidb muchas fanegas de un ras- 
trojo en el que se hubiera creido que no existia una 
sola. Usamos dos de estos preciosos instrumentos, de 
cuyo uso no comprendemos que pueda prescindirse en 
trabajos de alguna importancia. Lam. 6. 

No puedo terminar esta parte de mi informe, sin hacer 
mention de un pequeno instrumento, que bien puede con- 
siderate como el complemento de la preciosa invencion 
de que nos venimos ocupando. 

Solo la practica puede hacer valorar cuanto importa que 
las cuchillas est^n siempre bien afiladas. No solo los 
oaballos 6 los bueyes resisten mas, sino tambien la misma 



— 48 — 



maquina sufre menos en su mecanismo. No es, sin em 
bargo, cosa sencilla el afilarlas. Despues de algunos dias 
de trabajo, cuando el filo se ha gasteido, la lima 6 la pie- 
dra que usan losguadanadores, es insuficiente; es preciso 
entonces desmontrar las cuchillas, haciendo saltar los re- 
maehes que fijan los dientes a la barra de acero, afilar es- 
tos dientes, uno a uno, en una piedra de vuelta, y volver- 
los a remachar despues. En esta operacion empleabamos 
dos hombres constantemente. Con el ausilio de la ma- 
quina de los Sres. Hornsby, Lam. 7, un hombre solo hace 
en media hora este trabajo. 

Creo prestar un servicio no pequeno a nuestros labrado- 
res, haci6ndoles saber que puedan adquirir esta ingeniosa 
maquinita por la pequena suma de 400 ps. m/c, ocur- 
riendo a la calle Defensa N°. 135. 



MAQUINAS DE TRILLAR 

6 



Grande espectativa— -Las que se presentaron al con- 
curso— Su invencion — Perfeccion a que han He- 
gado— Causas porque no se han introducido entre 
nosotros— Resultado del ensayo— Satisfaccion ge- 
neral — Liquidacion completa de la cosecha opera- 
da por la maquina— Su mecanismo— Gantidad de 
trigo que trillan — Numero de hombres que ocupan 
— Precio de su trabajo comparado con el sistema 
actual— Conveniencia de atar el trigo-— Necesidad 
imperiosa de cortarlo antes de estar maduro — 
Guerdas 6 ataduras Lapparent— Diferencia entre 
el precio del trigo trillado por la maquina y el 
trillado por las patas de las yeguas, 

Eran estas maquinas el grande acontecimiento del dia. 
Habianse presentado cuatro ; tres de construction In- 
glesa, — dos de Garret 6 hijos, y una de Ruston Procton 
& C°, afamados construtores de maquinas de Inglater- 
ra, — y la ultima de Pitts, Americana, que goza de gran 
reputation en los Estados Unidos. Las tres primeras es- 



— SO — 



taban aparejadas de sus correspondientes maquinas de 
vapor portables, que con su hermosa cabellera negra 
suelta al viento, daban vida y animation al paisage; 
la Americana debia ser movida por lo que se llama 
una fuerza de caballos, que lo era de 8. 

Aunque los periodicos habian anunciado que en el campo 
de esperimentacion, se encontraban reunidas mas de 400 
maquinas, eran estas cuatro, las unicas que en realidad inte- 
resaban al que tiene alguna practica y algun conocimiento 
en estas materias. Impropiamente se clasifica entre las 
maquinas a los arados, rastras, rastrillos, y demas utiles 
6 implementos, que se ven en cualquier almacen de agri- 
cultura. Los grandes depositos de los senores Coffin y 
Roldan son una esposicion permanente, tan interesante 
como la que ofrecian las margenes del Rio Segundo. Aun 
las maquinas de segar son ya familiares a los agriculto- 
res Argentinos. Calculase que trabajan mas de 2,000 
en la Provincia de Buenos Aires, y en las Colonias de 
Santa Fe se hacen cada dia mas comunes. Mientras 
tanto, apenas si se ha introducido en la Republica una 
media docena de maquinas de trillar. Sucede a este 
respecto entre nosotros lo contrario de lo ,que ha suce- 
dido en todas partes. 

Fueinventada la trilladora por el Escoses Andres Meilke 
en 1788. Muy imperfecta al principio, sucesivamente ha 
ido mejorando, al punto que ha llegado en nuestros 
dias a un grado tal de perfection, que nada deja que 
desear. Ningun progreso sensible se senala ha muchos 
anos en su construccion, y las mejoras que a grandes 
voces proclaman siempre los catalogos para llamar la 
atencion, se reducen a pequenos detalles que no alteran 
sustancialmente el mecanismo, que con escasas diferen- 
cias es elmismo en todas. Despues de la patente de 



— 51 — 



Coulsor que sostituye los ejes de fierro, por baras flexibles 
de madera, que ponen en movimiento las zarandas sin 
ruido ni sacudimiento ; despues del ingenioso mecanismo, 
patente de Peinne que, con solo abrir 6 cerrar un resorte, 
permite arreglar el cilindro de alambre que hace la ultima 
linipieza y clasificacion, al tamano del grano — la unica 
novedad que veo anunciada, y que ha sido objeto de 
varios privilegios en los Estados Unidos, es la manera de 
arreglar automaticamente la corriente de viento que espele 
la paja. Todo ha de ser automatic© en esta epoca. 
A poco mas, no se ye que ha de quedar a la action del 
hombre. Cuando la trilladora trabaja a toda fuerza, el 
viento que hace el ventilador podria ser demasiado fuerte, 
y arrojar el grano mezclado con la paja. Para obviar a este 
inconveniente, se ha provisto a la maquina del medio de 
hacer su propia policia, mejor que pudiera hacerla el 
obrero mas cuidadoso. Lamisma corriente, cuando es de- 
masiado fuerte, pone en movimiento una palanca que abre 
6 cierra la abertura por donde entra el aire, y la mantiene 
de esta manera en la intensidad en que la practica ha en- 
senado que debe conservarse, y que de antemano se ha 
arreglado. 

Las ventajas que la trilladora ofrece sobre los anti- 
guos sistemas es tan evidente, que en todas partes los ha 
sustituido completamente. En Inglaterra, en Francia, 
en Alemania, en los Estados Unidos, no se conoce otra 
manera de separar el grano de la paja, y aun en 
aquellos paises donde la agncultura esta mas atrasa- 
da, donde se usa todavia el arado primitivo, y es 
apenas conocida la maquina de segar, como en Espana, 
en Hungria y en la Rumania, las trilladoras son entre to- 
dos los instrumentos perfeccionados, los primeros que en- 
tran en el uso general. ^Por que razon sucede entre no- 



sotros lo contrario ? Por que" estrano motivo, cuando 
vemos llenos los almacenes de instrumpntos agricolas de 
las ultimas y mas acabadas invenciones, no encontramos 
una sola trilladora ? 4 Sera que ellas son tan complicadas 
que esten fuera de los medios de que podamos disponer 
para ma nej arias? £ Sera que nuestro trigo por la calidad 
de su paja, 6 por alguna otra razon oculta, no se preste 
a su trabajo? 

Dos razones encuentro que dan solucion a estas dudas 
que mas de una vez me han preocupado, comohan preocu- 
pado a todo el que ha fijado su atencion en los trabajos 
de la tierra a que esta ligado el porvenir de nuestro 
pais. La primera es la notoria pobreza de nuestros 
agricultores. Las maquinas de trillar con sus mo to- 
res, ya sea de vapor, ya de fuerza de caballo, representan 
un valor que por regla general esta fuera del alcance 
de sus escasos medios. El Sr. D. Juan Cobo hizo venir 
una de estas maquinas, de uno de los mejores fabricantes 
de Inglaterra, Clayton & Shuttleworth, con una maqui- 
na de vapor portatil de la fuerza de 12 caballos, y a mas 
un elevador. Puesta en su estancia en el partido de 
San Pedro, con comisiones, fletes & a , le costaba 135,000 
ps. m/c. Una maquina de menos poder, sin el elevador, 
costaria lamitad6una tercera parte. ^Cuantos agricub 
tores se encontraran en situacion de hacer un desembolso 
semejante? Pero no es esto solo. El labrador que se 
propusiese salir de la rutina, tendria que encargar las 
maquinas y hacer el desembolso consiguiente, con una 
anticipation de 6 u 8 meses; y esto, aun antes de 
saber si alguna circunstancia imprevista le impediria sem- 
brar su trigo, 6 si, sembrado, llegaria a necesitar trillar- 
lo. Es indudable que, si en el momento preciso hubiera 
como adquirir una de estas maquinas, muchos agri- 



— 53 - 



cultores animados con el aliento y la esperanza de una 
buena cosecha ya lograda, se animarian k ensayarlas, y 
el buen resultado que indudablemente obtendrian, las ha- 
ria muy luego adoptar por todos. Los senores Ram- 
sones, Sims k Head; Ruston, Proctor & C°; Clayton & 
Shutteworth; Robey y C°, Burgess & Key; Marshall, & a , 
& a ., abririan con toda seguridad un mercado, que podria 
llegar a ser de la mayor importancia, a los productos de 
sus grandes fabricas, si establecieran un deposito en esta 
ciudad. 

La otra razon que ha detenido k mi juicio la introduc- 
cion de esta gran mejora en nuestra agricultura, es el 
resultado desgraciado de algunos ensayos tentados por 
hombres animosos y amantes del progreso. El Sr. Lar- 
roude\ algunos anos ha, hizo venir una de estas maqui- 
nas. No se porque razon no dio buen resultado; si por 
falta de hombres competentes para man ej aria, 6 porque 
la m Equina en si no era buena. El hecho es que por 
mucho tiempo esta maquina ha estado abandonada a inme- 
diaciones de la estacion del Caballit i. Ella ha sido la 
piedra de escandalo, por decirlo asi, de todos labradores, 
que en su mayor parte recorren con frecuencia la via del 
Oeste. Si alguno concebia la idea de mejorar el medio 
de levantar su cosecha, presentabasele luego al punto 
la imagen de esa maquina por tanto tiempo abandonada, 
y que debio costar no pocos pesos. Esa mdquina, es- 
puesta asi por meses y por anos a la vergiienza publica, 
ha retardado por un cuarto de siglo el progreso de la agri- 
cultura Argentina. Hubiera sido un acto de patriotica pre- 
vision de parte de nuestros Gobiernos, haberla comprado, y 
haberla quemado. 

El ensayo que iba a practicarse ofrecia, pues, el mas vivo 
intere's. El iba d resolver una duda que parecia fundada, 



— 54 — 



y un problema vital para el porvenir de nuestra industria 
agricola. Sabiamosya que en pocos dias, y con pocos hom- 
bres, podia cortarse una campana de trigo, por grande 
que fuera. Poco habiamos adelantado, empero, si no 
habia un medio igualmente eficaz para separar de la 
paja en que viene envuelto, el grano de ese trigo tan 
facilmente cortado. 

Apenas principio una de estas m&quinas su trabajo, 
la duda a que solo pudo dar lugar nuestra ignorancia, 
quedo disipada. Nada mas perfecto, nada mas complete; 
nada mas grandioso podia presentarse. Un rayo de luz ilu- 
mino el rostro de los agricultores alii presentes, que a una 
yoz esclamaron llenos de contento : Eureka 1 lleluya ! 

Mejor que la mas prolija descripcion, la lamina 8 dar& 
una idea de la risuena escena que presenta una trilla 
en un pueblo civilizado. [Que diferencia entre el dar 
vuelta eterno de las yeguas, el alarido de los arriadores, la 
algazara y la griteria de todos! Sera esto mas pintoresco, 
mas caracteristico, si se quiere, pero es sin disputa muy sal- 
vaje. 

El trigo se echa por la parte superior, de cualquiera 
manera que venga, ya con la paja 6 la espiga de frente, 
ya atado en gavillas, 6 ya suelto. Es luego recibido por 
un cilindro 6 batidor, que gira con una velocidad estraor- 
dmaria, de 1000 a 1200 revoluciones por minuto, y 
que, al forzarlo k pasar por una estrecha abertura, entre 
el mismo cilindro y unas placas de fierro con canaletas 
en espiral, de que tambien esta armado el cilindro, 
y que llamaremos contrabatidor, opera el desgra- 
ne. El trigo asi desgranado pasa por una serie de za- 
randas y por dos aventadores, y sale al fin perfectamen- 
te limpio y clasificado, cayendo con tan grande' comodi- 
dad k la bolsa puesta de antemano para recibirlo, que 



— 55 — 



el hombre que la recibe solo tiene el trabajo de re- 
tirarla, poniendo preWiamente una nueva en otra abertura 
que se abre al efeeto, para que no se pierda un solo gra- 
no. La paja sale por la parte de adelante, habiendo 
snfrido antes la accion de unos sacudidores, a fin de 
que deje el trigo y las granzas que hubieran podido es- 
capar a las zarandas. Estas granzas son llevadas por 
el mismo mecanismo a pasar otra vez por el cilindro. La 
paja menuda que envuelve la espiga, sale por otro carlo 6 
abertura, y puede ser recibida tambien en bolsas. Si se 
quiere, puede agregarse a esta maquina un elevador, que 
recibe la paja al caer de los batidores, y haciendo un ser- 
vicio parecido al de una noria, la lleva hasta la altura de 
24 pieV, facilitando asi la formation de una parva, y ahor- 
rando el trabajo de 3 hombres, que de otra manera se 
hubieran ocupado en separar los montones que hacen los 
batidores, y que acabarian por embarazar su accion. 

Por lo espuesto se ve" que en una sola operacion estas 
maquinas admirables hacen una liquidation completa de 
la cosecha. Por una parte, entregan el trigo clasificado 
en varias calidades, pertectamente limpio, sin un grano de 
tierra, ni una mala semilla, embolsado y pronto para ser 
remitido al mercado 6 al molino ; por otra, despiden la paja 
menuda, que embolsan tambien si se quiere; y finalmen- 
te, dejan la paja acondicionada en una parva, para que 
sirva en el invierno a la alimentation del ganado. 

La impresion general, repito, no pudo ser mas favorable. 
Todos daban por compensadas las fatigas de un dia, que 
habia sido de un calor verdaderamente insoportable, como 
no he sentido nunca en mi vida, la presenciar aquel gran- 
dioso triunfo de la mecanica. Tanto la maquina a vapor, 
como la trilladora trabajan con una facilidad, y una ar- 
monia en todos sus movimientos que encantan. Los que 



— 56 — 



tenian alguna practica de las dificultades que acomparian 
k la trilla en nuestro sistema actual ; de los peligros de 
que sobrevenga una Uuvia, mientras se hace la parva, 
mientras se pisa, y mientras se aventa, no acababan de 
ponderar las ventajas que este maravilloso mecanismo 
ofrecia, ni alcanzaban a comprencler como es que no se 
hubiera introducido y generalizado antes de ahora. 

Vamos ahora a ver que trabajo hacen, cuantos hombres 
necesitan para funcionar ; vamos, en una palabra, a tradu- 
cir en cifras las ventajas que nos ofrece. 

Los Sres. Ransomes, Sims & Head, cuyas trilladoras ob- 
tuvieron el primer premio en la ultima Exposicion Univer- 
sal de Paris, die en en su catalogo que el numero de hom- 
bres y muchachos empleados debe ser once, y distribuyen la 
posicion y los deberes de cada uno en la forma siguiente : 
uno, para alimentar la maquina; dos, para desatary pa- 
sar las gavillas al alimentador; dos, arriba de la parva 
para echar las gavillas a la plataforma de la maquina ; 
uno, pararecoger lapaja que cae del sacudidor; dos, para 
apilar la paja ; uno, para recoger el hollejo que cae debajo 
de la maquina, y de cuando en cuando, depositar las 
granzas que han salido del cano, arriba de la platafor- 
ma, para ser trilladas de nuevo ; uno, para quitar los sacos 
cuando estan llenos; y uno, para atender a la locomovil. 
La posicion de estos operarios se halla perfectamente mar- 
cada en el grabado 10. El alimentador que ocupa 
una posicion de mucha responsabilidad, debe ser un hom- 
bre activo, teniendo el mando de todos los que se colo- 
can cerca de la maquina. Debe cuidar de hacer la alimen- 
tacion en una corriente continua, sin cesar, estendiendo el 
trigo con uniformidad sobre el ancho entero del cilindro. 
Los dos hombres 6 muchachos que desatan las gavillas, de- 



— "57 — 



ben colocarse encima de la plataforma, de tal modo que 
cualquier de los dos pueda pasar al alimentador una ga- 
villa con faeilidad pero sin estorbar al otro. Los hom- 
bres de la parva cuidan de pasar a los hombres 6 mu- 
ch achos que esta encima de la plataforma, sin inter- 
rupcion ni escasez las ga villas, de tal modo que estos las 
pueden alcanzar sin moverse de sus puestos. El que 
recoge la paja que cae desde el estremo del sacu- 
didor, nunca ha de permitir que esta se vaya acu- 
mulando hasta impedir la libre caida de la que viene. 
Otro tauto se puede decir del encargado de recoger el 
hollejo de abajo de la maquina, lo que si se descuida, im- 
pide la libre accion de la zaranda; este mismo se hace 
cargo del canasto 6 cajon colocado debajo del cano de 
las granzas, cuidando de depositar su contenido arri- 
ba de la plataforma, de modo que sea facil al alimen- 
tador echarlo poco a poco al cilindro para ser trillado de 
nuevo. El que se encarga de los sacos, debe removerlos 
antes que lleguen a llenarse tanto que, impidan la sali- 
da del grano de los canos, pues sino, saldra el trigo 
limpio entre el chuzo y el desperdicio ; durante el tiem- 
po ocupado en llenarse los sacos, tendra tiempo de re- 
parar la maquina, cuidando de que todos los ejes est^n 
bien lubricados. El encargado de la locomovil debe 
estar siempre muy alerta en atender a las seriales que se 
le den para parar 6 dar movimiento a su maquina. » 

El Sr. D. Francisco Ortiz, que es reputado uno de nues- 
tros mas inteligentes agricultores, en una carta que dirige 
al Sr. Coffin 6 hijo, y que publica el catalogo de estos Sres., 
apoyandose en la esperiencia de haber trillado en Chivil- 
coy 3,000 fanegas con una maquina americana, calcula 
que el numero de trabajadores puede reducirse a 8, 

Sabemos ya que numero de hombres se necesita para 

4 



— 58 — 



manejar una de estas m&quinas ; v6amos ahora que traba- 
jo hacen. 

La maquina de.8 caballos de Garret trillo en %0 minu- 
tos 1407 libs. 

La de Ruston Proctor y C\, — que se hizo notar por la 
armonia y regularidad de todos sus movimientos (Lamina 
11), 890 en el mismo tiempo. 

Segun esta proporcion, la primera de estas m&quinas 
trillaria 187 fanegas en un dia de diez horas de trabajo, y 
la 2\ 118. 

No seria prudente tomar este resultado por defmitivo. 
No es lo mismo el trabajo que se hace en unos pocos mi- 
nutos de ensayo, bajo el esthnulo y la escitacion del premio, 
que el que se puede esperar y exigir en las largas horas 
de un dia de verano, bajo los rayos de un sol abrasador. 

Debo, sin embargo, *observar que una esperiencia pos- 
terior me ha hecho ver, que cualquiera de estas maquinas 
puede trillar de 80 a 100 fanegas al dia. Naturalmente, la 
cantidad sera mayor 6 menor, segun sea el trigo. Si 
ha sido cortado muy bajo, y la paja es muy alta ; si 
las espigas estan vanas 6 mal granadas, la maquina hara 
el mismo trabajo, pero el resultado serd menor. Y si las 
gavillas no tienen sino paja, es claro que la mlquina, por 
mas perfecto y espeditivo que sea su trabajo, no podra 
dar trigo. 

La dificultad no esik tampoco en que la m&quina haga tan- 
to 6 cuanto, sino en darle el alimento bastante. Es increible 
la velocidad con que despacha el trigo que recibe. Una 
gran brazada 6 una gran gavilla, en un abrir y cerrar de 
ojos, desaparece ; y vese luego que por una parte sale el 
grano perfectamente limpio y clasificado en varias cali- 
dades, segun se quiera; y por otras, la paja, el hollejo, las 
granzas etc. 



— 59 - 



Pero solo aquellos que ban tenido ocasion de tocarlo 
pr&cticamente, pueden apreciar la cantidad inmensa de 
paja en que vienen envueltas 100 fanegas de trigo. Es 
una parva entera, y no pequena. El trabajo del hombre 
que recibe las gavillas, 6 el trigo suelto para estenderlo 
sobre el cilindro 6 batidor, es tan activo y tan fuerte, que 
no es f&cil que pueda resistirse por mas de dos horas ; y 
para que se lleve con la celeridad y la energia debidas, 
el alimentador debe ser cambiado con frecuencia. 

Despues de haber dicho que la maquina de trillar es 
entre todos los instrumentos perfeccionados el primero 
que se introduce aun en aquellos paises donde la agricul- 
tura estd relativamente atrasada, y que su uso es univer- 
sal, — parecera escusado poner en paralelo sus ventajas con 
nuestro sistema actual. En muchos departamentos de 
Francia, en efecto, la segadora ha penetrado apenas. En 
otros, alii donde el trabajo es barato y abundantes las co- 
sechas, se discute todavia sus ventajas. Siempre el tra- 
bajo del brazo del hombre sera mas perfecto, dicen los 
que aun resisten el uso de la [segadora, j cuando el trigo 
esta tendido, 6 presenta islotes 6 manchones ocasionados 
por las lluvias y los vientos, la maquina sera impotente. 
Cuando el trigo esta tendido, contestan sus sostenedores, 
la maquina cortard de un solo lado ; y cuando presente 
esos manchones 6 islotes enredados, se cortaran k mano 
previamente, y siempre habra una ventaja inmensa en 
favor de la maquina que cortara sin dificultad el res- 
to. En ninguna parte, empero, se ha puesto en duda 
el grande beneficio que esta seguro de recoger el labra- 
dor con el uso de la trilladora. En Inglaterra, donde se 
cultivan estensas superficies, se construyen por milla- 
res maquinas de grandes dimensiones, que movidas por 
motores de diez y doce caballos, pueden trillar doscientos 



— 60 — 



y mas fanegas al dia. En Francia donde la propiedad esta 
subdividida al estremo, como es sabido, los constructo- 
rs han contraido todos sus esfuorzos a ponerlas al alcan- 
ce de todas las fortunas. Al mas desyalido no se le ocur- 
riria trillar de otra manera, y si no le alcanzaran sus re- 
cursos para comprar una, contrataria con algun empresa- 
rio de trabajos de este genero, que no falta nunca. Fuera 
de desear que entre nosotros se introdujera esta industria. 
Ningun empleo del capital seria mas reproductivo. Me 
aseguran que una maquina que trabajaba en Chivilcoy co- 
braba 35 pesos por fanega ; nosotros cobramos 30 a nuestros 
medianeros. Mas adelante se vera que estas cifras dejan 
todavia una gran marjen al empresario. 

Facilitara, por ultimo, en mucho el trabajo de la maqui- 
na, y el rinde aumentara en proportion, si el trigo ha sido 
atado previamente. Bien se que esta operacion es costosa, y 
ha de chocar con la rutina. No concibo por mi parte como 
pueda hacerse de otra manera un trabajo regular. Atado 
el trigo, es mas facil recojer las gavillas en un carro, 6 en 
cueros, si se quiere, y acarrearlas a la maquina. Asi se ira 
trillando a medida que se recoja. Pudiendo la maquina, si 
es alimentada con regularidad, trillar de 80 a 100 fanegas, 
que es, mas 6 menos, lo que puede emparvarse en un dia, 
es claro que no habria objeto en hacer una parva para 
deshacerla al dia siguiente. Solo deb era emparvarse 
aquel trigo que no pueda trillarse en el periodo ordinario 
de la cosecha. Esta sola economia, sin tener en cuenta 
los peligros de que se moje la parva, basta y sobra a 
compensar el gasto que hubiera ocasionado la operacion 
de atar. Las gavillas pasaran de mano en mano con toda 
facilidad, y la alimentacion de la maquina se hara regu- 
larmente sin intermision, doblando su rinde. Si el trigo 
no se ha atado ^ como se alcanza de los cueros 6 de los 



— 61 — 

earros al alimentador, que esta a una altura considera- 
ble? j Cuanto desperdicio, cuanta perdida de tiempo nc 
costara pasar el trigo suelto, bien en brazadas, bien 
en horquillas que llevaran apenas unas cuantas espigas I 
La mitad del trabajo de la maquina sera perdido, si no 
se ha tornado esta precaucion indispensable. En ninguna 
parte del mundo se trabaja de otra manera, y entre nos- 
otros, aun para el trabajo ordinario de trillar con yeguas, 
principia a usarse, por los italianos principalmente, llevar 
en carretas eL trigo atado a la era. 

Vamos ahora a examinar un poco esta temida cuestion 
de la atadura. 

Desde luego, lo primero que ocurre preguntar es £ con que 
se ata? Y lo primero que tambien ocurre contestar es que 
con la misma paja del trigo. 

Pero esta paja es corta las mas veces, y se rompe cuan- 
do esta seca. 

Este inconveniente, que es realmente serio, se evitara en 
mucha parte, si el trigo se corta, como debe cortarse, cinco 
6 seis dias antes de estar maduro. Asi la paja tendra flexi- 
bilidad, y resistencia bastante, aun para hacer las cuerdas 
6 ataduras de dos manejos 6 punados, si no fuera sufi- 
cientemente larga. 

He dicho que el trigo debe* cortarse cinco 6 seis dias antes 
de su madurez. Jamas se recomendara bastante a nuestros 
labradores que antes que retardar, anticipen mas bien 
este momento precioso de la cosecha, que una vez perdido, 
no vuelve mas. 

Hemos visto siempre principiar la cosecha de nuestros ce- 
reales cuando el sol ha dorado sus espigas ; y esperimenta- 
mos una resistencia instintiva a cortarlo verde. Error fatal ! 
La ignorancia 6 el desprecio de los consejos de la ciencia, nos 
cuestatodos los anos el sacrifijcio esteril de millares de fane- 



— 62 — 



gas, y de millones de pesos. Creo que no es exajerado 
decir que una cuarta parte de nuestra coseeha se pierde 
por no cortarse a tiempo. La espiga demasiado seca 
deja caer el grano ; los pajaros devoran una buena parte ; 
y los vientos y las lluvias se encargan del resto. Tambien 
sin exageracion puede decirse que otra cuarta parte se pier- 
de en la era. £ Cuantas veces no se pierde todo? De mane- 
ra que sin avanzar demasiado puede asegurarse que la mitad 
de nuestra coseeha se pierde por no cortarse- y trillarse a 
tiempo, 6 lo que es lo mismo, por falta de la suficiente do- 
tacion de maquinas de segar y de trillar. Con esta mitad 
perdida habria lo bastante para enriquecer a los labrado- 
res ; para llenar la campana entera de maquinas ; para 
cambiar el estado precario en que se arrastra nuestra agri- 
cultura; y finalmente, para no necesitar que nos venga del 
estrangero lo que podemos producir, y lo que en realidad 
sacrificamos por preocupaciones 6 por falta de saber. 

Admitido que el trigo deba cortarse antes de su madurez . 
I dual es el momento preciso ? 

Cuestion es esta muy debatida, pero que esta hoy defini- 
tivamente resuelta con el acuerdo de la esperiencia y de 
la ciencia. 

Es hoy un principio admitido sin discrepancia por los 
hombres competentes, que la madurez, es decir, el acto de 
madurar, Jj no es esclusivamente un acto de vejetacion. Es 
mas bien una combinacion de elementos preexistentes, una 
especie de reaccion quimica de las materias contenidas 
dentro del perispermo. « Si se examina en la primavera, 
con el auxilio de un microscopio, la fecula de los tubdrculos 
del iris de Florencia, dice Mr. Raspail en su nuevo sistema 
de quimica orgdnica, se vera que el grosor de los granos no 
pasa de 1/100 de milimetro ; si se dejan estos tuberculos 
al aire, despues de quince dias los granos de fecula habran 



— 63 — 



aumentado tres veces de volumen. La fecula puede, pues, 
desarrollarse sin que la planta comunique con el suelo. » 

« Cuando la semilla, dice el Dr. Stockhardt, ha adquiri- 
do la facultud de reproducer otro individuo igual al que 
le dio el ser, la planta ha llenado su mision, muere, y 
la descomposicion principia luego.» Ahora bien, se ha 
observado que la vida de la planta concluye precisamente 
por donde habia principiado, es decir por la raiz. Muer- 
ta la raiz, ningun alimento puede dar a la planta, y 
por consiguiente, el grano de los cereales puede completar 
su madurez despues de haber sido separado del suelo. Del 
mismo modo vemos que la mayor parte de las frutas, los 
duraznos, las naranjas, las manzanas etc., maduran per- 
fectamente fuera del drbol, y algunas, como las peras, mu- 
chos meses despues. 

Esta cuestion no es nueva, y trae otra yez a la memo- 
ria la esclamacion que motivo la segadora de los Galos. 
«Nada esmas peligroso que el retardo, dice Columella, es- 
critor agricola, contemporaneo de Seneca ; — primero por- 
que el grano es presa de los pajaros y de otros animales ; 
y despues porque los granos y las mismas espigas se des- 
prenden de las canas, que acaban tambien por tenderse si 
sobrevienen vientos impetuosos. Esta es la razon porque 
no se debe esperar demasiado ; debe principiarse la cose- 
cha tan pronto como las espigas tomen un tinte amarillen- 
to, y antes que los granos maduren, a fin de que crezcan 
(grandescant) en el granero mas bien que en el campo, por- 
que es fuera de duda que, si* se corta a tiempo, el grano 
adquiere en seguida desenvolvimiento ( incrementum ) . » 

Las observaciones de los agronomos modernos confir- 
man plenamente esta opinion del escritor Romano : « El 
corte prematuro, dice Matthieu de Dombasle, evita a 
menudo una perdida considerable que ocasiona el des- 



— 64 - 



grane, sobre todo en algunas variedades de trigo ; y 
en todas aquellas partes donde se sigue esta practica, 
todos conyienen en que el trigo segado prematuramente 
es de mejor calidad para el molino. En algunos mer- 
cados los molineros y los panaderos saben bien distin- 
guirlo al simple tacto, y lo pagan ordinariamente mas caro 
que el grano recojido en su completa madurez. Esta prac- 
tica presenta dos ventajas muy importantes : la de poder 
disponer de mayor numero de dias, anticipando una sema- 
na el principio de la cosecha ; la de ponerse a cubierto un 
poco antes de los peligros de los temporales y de la piedra, 
que amenazan los trigos en esta estacion del ano, y que 
con tanta frecuencia devastan algunas provincias, la vispe- 
ra de la cosecha. » 

Cock y Antonio de Roville piensan que el trigo recojido 
antes de estar maduro contiene menos afrecho. 

Opinan que cuando se deja demasiado tiempo en pie, la 
pelicula se hace mas gruesa & espensas de la sustancia que 
contiene el grano. 

Muchas otras autoridades y muy competentes podria ci- 
tar para probar que hay mas que utilidad, necesidad, de 
cortar el trigo antes de que este completamente maduro. 
Pero 1 cual es el momento preciso que aconseja la espe- 
riencia ? 

Algunos autores creen que es aquel en que el grano no 
esta ya bastante blando para ser aplastado entre los dedos. 
La opinion de Matthieu de Dombasle es mas precisa y mas 
exacta.: « Se puede, por regla general, dice, cortar el trigo 
siete u ocho dias antes de su completa madurez ; es decir, 
cuando la paja, principiando a ponerse blanca y a secarse 
Mcia el pi6, comienza a perder su tinte verdoso ; y cuando 
el grano ha adquirido bastante consistencia para que, si se 
le apreta entre los dedos, la una penetre todavia, pero no 



— 65 — 



lo corte tan facilmente como cuando no tiene sino una con- 
sistencia de leche 6 de pasta. 

Esta indicacion del ilustre agronomo es tanto mas pre- 
ciosa, cuanto que ha sido enteramente confirmada por 
esperiencias recientes. 

Por orden de la Sociedad Imperial y real de agricultura 
de Francia, Mr. Pay en, secretario perpetuo de la Socie- 
dad, y Mr. Pommier, miembro de la misma, hicieron estas 
esperiencias en la chacra Imperial de Fouillense, y obtuvie- 
ron los resultados siguientes : 



Trigo muy verde cortado 8 6 10 dias antes de su madurez. 



Granos verdes [100 espigas) . 

» secos 

Agua, por ciento de granos. . 

Peso del litro verde 

» » » seco 
Peso de 1 00 granos secos . . 



Trigo bianco. Trigo Colorado. 

138 gr. 51 146 gr. 46 

122 » 63 129 » 63 

12 » 15 12 » 86 

800 » 60 759 » 20 

782 » 50 752 » 50 

5 » 14 5 » 70 



Trigo menos verde, recojido 5 6 6 dias antes desu madurez. 



Granos verdes (100 espigas) . 

» secos 

Agua, por ciento 

Peso del litro verde 

» » » seco 

Peso de 1 00 granos secos . . 



Trigo bianco. Trigo Colorado* 

138 gr. 61 146 gr. 46 

164 » 18 209 » 45 

12 » 11 11 » 81 

898 » 60 741 » 20 

807 » 30 746 » 20 

5 » 37 3 » 82 



— 66 — 



Trigo recojido en su madurez completa. 

Trigo bianco. Trigo Colorado. 

Granos verdes (100 espigas) . 182 gr. 96 196 gr. 54 

» secos 164 » 18 209 » 45 

Agua, por ciento de granos. . 18 » 89 13 » 38 

Peso del litro verde 793 » 00 803 » 50 

» » » seco 760 » 00 785 » 70 

Peso de 100 granos secos . . 5 » 41 4 » 15 

. Estos hechos observados con toda exactitud son conclu- 
yentes. 

El hectolitro (3 cuartillas proximamente ) de granos secos 
de trigo Colorado cortado diez dias antes de su madurez, peso 
78 kil. 25 ; la misma cantidad de trigo cortado seis dias 
antes de estar maduro, es decir, en las condiciones que 
aconseja Matthieu de Dombasle, 80 kil. 73 ; y por ul- 
timo, igual cantidad cortado en su completa madurez, solo 
76 kil. ; menos que el trigo cortado diez dias antes de 
estar maduro. No cabe, pues, la menor duda de que es pre- 
ferible anticipar de dos 6 tres dias el momento de la cose- 
cha, antes que retardarlo. 

Cadet de Vaux asegura que el trigo recojido antes de 
estar maduro pesa 5 kilogramos,— 10 libras,— mas por hec- 
tolitro ; y que 1 ,500 gramas de harina de uno y otro trigo, 
darian 125 gramas mas por la harina del trigo recojido an- 
tes de su madurez. 

Resulta, pues, evidente que el mejor momento para cor- 
tar el trigo, es cinco 6 seis dias antes de su completa ma- 
durez, y que es toda via preferible cortarlo diez dias antes, 
en vez de esperar a que este completamente maduro. 

Es bien entendido que este principio no es aplicable a 
los trigos que se dejan para semilla. 

La esperiencia ha probado tambien que los cereales cor- 



— 67 — 



tados anticipadamente, son menos propensos a desgranarse, 
que los que se han dejado madurar en la planta. 

Me he detenido sobre este punto mas de lo que pareceria 
corresponder a la naturaleza de este informe, porque lo con- 
siders de la mayor importancia para nuestros labradores. 
Cuando llegan los dias abrasadores de Diciembre, las diver- 
sas fases de la vejetacion de los cereales se desenvuelven con 
una rapidez estraordinaria. £1 trigo sembrado en Agosto ma- 
dura casi al mismo tiempo que el que se sembro en Mayo. 
Solo tiene asi el labrador veinte, 6 veinticinco dias, a lo 
sumo, en que cortar su trigo en el momento oportuno. 
j Cuanto no importa entonces que no pierda uno solo ! [ Que" 
ventaja inmensa que pueda contar con diez dias mas en 
una epoca tan premiosa ! j Que perdida tan considerable 
no evitara cortando todo su trigo, antes que se hay a 
desprendid© un grano de la espiga ! 

Pero volvamos ya a la. operacion que nos ocupaba antes 
de esta digresion. 

Cortado verde el trigo, es facil atar la gavilla con la mis- 
ma paja. Pero esta puede ser corta ; es entonces preciso 
hacer de dos punados 6 manojos uno, y esto alarga y di- 
ficulta la operacion, mucho mas cuando es nueva, y hay 
pocos hombres diestros entre nosotros. 

En Europa se siembra, como he dicho, centeno, que da 
una paja larga, y se preparan con ella cuerdas 6 ligadu- 
ras con anticipacion. Entre nosotros debiera hacerse lo 
mismo ; el labrador previsor debiera preparar con anti- 
cipacion estas cuerdas, supiiendo el centeno con paja 6 
con j unco, si fuese necesario. 

« La cosecha, dice Olivier de Serres, padre de la agri- 
cultura francesa, es el fin y el coronamiento de los traba- 
jos de la tierra. Debe, pues, el labrador disponer con 
diligencia sus trabajos para recojer el fruto segun la bendi- 



i 



— 68 — 



cion de Dios.» « Se ha comparado a menudo al labrador, 
dice otro autor distinguido, a un general ; y esta compara- 
cion nos ha parecido exacta. El dia de la cosecha es el dia 
de la gran batalla que ha de decidir de la suerte de los 
trabajos del ano. El enemigo a combatir y veneer es la llu- 
via intempestiva ; el sol demasiado ardiente ; el trigo de- 
masiado maduro, 6 tendido por los vientos, 6 la piedra ; 6 
bien, son los hombres que faltan, los instrumentos que se 
rompen, las maquinas que se descomponen ; el enemigo 
& veneer, en una palabra, son todas las dificultades que 
se presentan hasta que el trigo este salvo y seguro en 
el granero.» 

Para el labrador que cuenta con la suficiente dotacion 
de maquinas de segar y de trillar, la batalla esta ganada. 
La unica dificultad que le queda que salvar es la de atar las 
gavillas, y esta desaparece, si ha preparado de antemano 
los medios de vencerla. 

Antes he recordado que en los Estados Unidos habia 
obtenido patente una maquina que, al mismo tiempo que 
cortaba y hacia las gavillas, las ataba. Seria esto sin duda 
un gran progreso, pero no es hasta ahpra mas que una 
esperanza. 

En un interesante articulo que publica el Journal d' Agri- 
culture practique, en el numero del 1 0 de Febrero del ano 
proximo pasado, un agricultor frances, Mr. Goussard de 
Mayolles, recomienda mucho unas cuerdas 6 ligaduras 
automaticas, inventadas por Mr. H. de Lapparent, que dice 
haber usado muchos anos con el mejor exito. Segun ase- 
gura, con estas ligaduras la operacion de atar se facilita en 
estremo, a terminos de que pueden ocuparse en este traba- 
jo mujeres y muchachos ; y de esta manera ha podido re- 
ducirse a un centimo el precio de atar una gavilla. Estas 
ataduras, segun dice el mismo agricultor, tienen ademas la 



— 69 - 



ventaja de desatarse con la mayor facilidad, y parecen he- 
chas ex-profeso para la trilladora a vapor. Sirven muchas 
veces en una misma cosecha, y duran 5,6 6 mas anos. Su 
precio es 54 francos, 270 pesos moneda corriente por miliar, 
y el domicilio de Mr. Lapparent, Saint-Eloi de Gy, cerca de 
Bourges. He encargado algunas de estas ligaduras, que es- 
pero poder ensayar en la proxima cosecha. Nada hay in- 
diferente ni pequeno tratandose de agricultura. En los 
mas insignificantes detalles se cuenta por millones. Mr. 
Manoury D'Ectot, apoyado en prolijos datos estadisticos, 
estima en 80.000,000 de francos, 400.000,000 de nuestra 
moneda, el gas to que hace la Francia anualmente en estas 
ligaduras de paja con que ata las 2.000,000,000 de gavi- 
Uas que recoje ! La invencion de Mr. Lapparent reduciria 
a la mitad por lo menos esta enorme suma. 

El precio corriente en Francia para atar una hectarea 
detrigo es ocho francos, lo que equivale, mas 6 menos, a 
100 pesos de nuestra moneda por cuadra. Aunque fuera 
el doble, y aun el triple entre nosotros, habria siempre tan 
grande economia en todas las operaciones sucesivas, que 
estaria compensado con usura. 

En un trabajo regular y con una cosecha mediana de W 
fanegas por cuadra, p. ej., una trilladora correspondiente a 
una locomobil de la fuerza de seis caballos, que es a mi 
juicio la que mas conviene para nuestro pais, trillara 
de 60 a 100 fanegas en 10 horas de trabajo. Tomando el 
minimun, resultara todavia una diferencia inmensa en fa- 
vor dela maquina, segun es facil verlo. 

Tomamos por punto de partida el hecho comun a uno 
y otro sistema, de que el trigo este' en la parva, 6 se traiga 
al costado de la maquina, lo que supondria que se habia 
evitado el gasto de hacer la parva, y estableceria desde luego 
una gran ventaja en favor de la mecanica. Tenemos enton- 



— 70 — 



ces para el trabajo de la maquina, segun Ransomes Sims. 



1 Maquinista 50 

10 peones a 30 pesos 360 

Mantencion de 1 1 hombres a 5 ps 55 

Carbon, 300 libras 150 

Aceite 10 

Un hombre para acarrear agua 30 

Fnteres y amortization del costo de la maquina, que 
estimaremos en 50,000 pesos moneda corriente 

en relation a 40 dias de trabajo en un ano, al dia 300 

Reparaciones 6 imprevistos 1 60 



985 

Lo que equivale a 16 pesos por fanega. 



Muy dificil es, sino imposible, calcular cuanto costara 
este mismo trabajo por el sistema actual, pues todo depen- 
de que no llueva mientras se hace y se trilla la parva , y de 
que haga viento para aventarla. Suponiendo, lo que ra- 
ra, muy rara vez sucede, que una parva que represente 
de 60 a 100 fanegas, se trille en un dia y se avente en dos, 



tendremos lo siguiente : 

Preparacion de la parva 1 50 

Yeguarizo : es sabido que cada ano suben los pre- 
cios de una manera estraordinaria, por la escasez 

y el alto precio de las yeguas 600 

10 hombres a 30 pesos, 3 dias. 900 

Mantencion ... ...... ... ... 150 



1,700 

Es decir — %l pesos por fanega. 

Es bien sabido que esto es bajo por demas. Pocos son 
los labradores que no darian la mitad de su cosecha al 
que la levantara. Los gastos de cortar, usando la maqui- 
na, son insignificantes, no mas de 3 6 4 pesos por fanega, y 



— 71 — 



si solo se usa la hoz, no pasar^n nunca de 18; siendo el 
precio del trigo por termino medio 150 pesos, es evidente 
que los labradores no estiman en menos de 50 pesos el 
costo de trillar una fanega. Resulta entonces que aun dadas 
las condiciones mas desfavorables para la m&quina y las 
mas favorables para el sistema actual, hay siempre una 
ventaja inmensa en favor de la m&quina. 

Pero hay todayia una consideracion de la mayor impor- 
tancia en su favor. El trigo trillado por la m&quina vale 
15 6 20 pesos mas en el mercado. Una partida trillada en 
nuestro establecimiento de Cain p ana por una Pitts, se pudo 
vender al precio mas alto, no obstante que solo pesaba 8 
arrobas 12 libras; al mismo precio porque se vendian tri- 
gos que daban 9 arrobas 15 libras. Si a esto se agrega 
que la separacion del grano de la paja se hace mucho 
mejor, no pudiendo estimarse en menos de un 10 aun 15 
por ciento el aumento en el rinde, tendremos al fin que el 
uso de la trilladora comparado con el sistema actual, no 
solo es mas economico, sino que paga sus gastos con la 
mejora que produce en el precio y en el rinde, y deja to- 
dayia una ganancia al labrador. iQu6 mas puede exijirse, 
ni que* mas puede desearse ? 



TRILL AD OR A PITTS 



Ensayo desgraciado — Revindication — Motores de va- 
por y de fuerza de caballo — Razones que acon- 
sejan entre nosotros el uso de los primeros — 
Sencillez del mecanismo de esta maquina — Su 
precio — Condiciones que la hacen la mas ade- 
cuada para nuestro pais. 

Ensayose en seguida una maquina de construccion ameri- 
cana de la afamada fabrica de Pitts, de Buffalo en el Estado 
de Nueva York, que merece una mencion especial (L&m. 1 1 .) 
En vez de ser movida por vapor, lo era por una una fuerza 
de ocho eaballos. Facil fu& ver desde luego la diferencia 
entre uno y otro motor. Las maquinas inglesas con sus lo- 
comobiles habian trabajado admirablemente, sin vacila- 
cion, sin un solo entorpecimiento. Mientras tanto, el enear- 
gado de dirijir las cuatro parejas que debian dar movimiento 
a la fuerza de caballo, se ajitaba en vano para conseguir 
que el tiro fuera igual y seguido. Unas veces iban dei na- 
si ado a prisa los eaballos, otras se paraban, otras se enre- 
daban en los arreos ; hasta que al fin se rompio por segunda 
ves el pinon de un engrenaje, y termino el ensayo, bajo 



— 73 — 



una impresion desfavorable. Observase tambien que esta 
maquina rompia eu estremo el grano. 

Es una cosa singular lo que entre nosotros sucede. En 
el pais donde, segun se ha observado, apenas se da un 
paso a pie, donde todo se hace a caballo, donde se pesca, 
se caza, y hasta se pide limosna a caballo, es lo mas difi- 
cil encontrar caballos educados al trabajo. No habra tal 
vez un solo hacendado 6 labrador que tenga las diez pare- 
jas que exije la trilladora Pitts ; digo diez, porque no es 
posible que los caballos trabajen todo el dia sin mudarse, y 
porque es indispensable tomar repuesto, en prevision de 
que alguno se canse 6 se enferme. En los Estados Unidos 
estas fuerzas de caballo se usan muy generalmente y cob 
preferencia al vapor. Son mas baratas y mas economicas, 
puesto que no exijen el gasto del combustible. Pero alb, 
todos los trabajos de la labranza se hacen con caballos, que 
se mantienen perfectamente a pesebre, y que el uso y el 
cuidado domes tica y amanza. Mientras nosotros no nos 
encontremos en igual caso, debemos preferir los motores 
a vapor, cuyo trabajo, es por otra parte, mucho mas regu- 
rar y mas eficaz, y que merecen por su importancia un 
estudio especial. 

He tenido ocasion de presenciar el trabajo de ana de es- 
tas trilladoras Pitts, y me complazco en revindicar para ella 
el honor que dejo comprometido en los campos de Cordoba. 
No era posible que en los Estados Unidos, granero del 
mundo, y donde tantos progresos ha hecho la mecanica, el 
instrumento que tiene mas aceptacion y que seespende por 
millares, fuera un instrumento defectuoso, que tuviera que 
avergonzarse ante la perfeccion de las maquinas inglesas. 

En la ultima cosecha trillamos en nuestro establecimien- 
to como 1 ,000 fanegas de trigo con una maquina Pitts del 
modelo mas grande, movida por una locomobd inglesa de 

6 



— 74 — 



la fuerza de 12 caballos. Nada mas sencillo, mas perfecto, 
mas admirable. La maquina de vapor trabajaba solo con 
la mitad de su fuerza ; facilmente hubiera podido poner en 
movimiento dos maquinas iguales. El consumo de carbon 
no era considerable, alcanzaria apenas a la sesta parte de 
una tonelada al dia. 

Como es sabido, con muy raras escepciones, la cosecha 
fu^ malisima el ano ultimo, a consecuencia de las fuertes 
heladas que sobrevinieron en Noviembre. La mitad de las 
espigas no tenia grano; no fue posible, por consiguiente, 
formar un calculo exacto acerca de la cantidad que esta 
m&quina podria trillar. La impresion de todos los que la 
vieron fue, sin embargo, que podria hacer con un trigo 
en regulares condiciones mas de 1 00 fanegas en diez horas 
de trabajo con toda facilidad. Algunas veees observamos 
con el reloj en la mano, que Uenaba una bolsa en cinco 
minutos, y aim en menos. 

La gran dificultad, como lo he observado antes, es ali- 
mentar con bastante rapidez el cilindro desgranador, que 
girando aun con mayor velocidad que en las m&quinas in- 
glesas, 1 ,300 revoluciones por minuto, arrebata como un 
furioso torbellino las brazadas que recibe, por grandes que 
sean, haciendolas desaparecer como en una vertijinosa vo- 
rajine. 

Al principio el grano salia bastante quebrado, pero v este 
defecto que visiblemente provenia de la aspereza de los 
dientes 6 puas del desgranador, fue gradualmente desapa^ 
reciendo a medida que con el mismo uso se gastaban los 
filos de aquellas puas, y ya al ultimo el grano quebrado 
era muy poco. Solo una vez fue necesario suspender el 
trabajo para hacer una psquena reparacion. El grano salia 
perfectamente limpio, y no obstante su quebradura, y que 
solo pesaba 8 arrobas 1 2 libras, ha sido considerado ecep- 



— 75 — 



cional en el mercado, y ha obtenido el precio mas alto. Las 
autoridades de los partidos vecinos y muchos de sus prin- 
cipal es habitantes vinieron a presenciar este ensayo. Hom- 
bres-practicos todos, y que personalmente ban luchado con 
las dificultades que veian vencidas como por encanto, no se 
cansaban de admirar aquella maravilla de la industria. 

En mi opinion, es esta la trilladora que mas convendria 
introducir entre nosofros. Las de fabricacion inglesas, son 
sin duda mas perfectas, la rotura del grano es menor, y la 
paja sale mas entera ; pero a la vez, su mecanismo es mas 
complicado, y por consiguiente mas dificil de reparar. En 
la maquina Americana todo esta a la vista, y cuando por 
algun accidente deja de funcionar con debida regularidad, 
cualquier obrero medianamente intelijente, ve luego donde 
esta el mal, y sin trepidacion puede remediarlo. A esta 
ventaja que para nuestro pais es inapreciable, hay que 
agregar que son mucho mas livianas, pudiendo trasportar- 
se con toda facilidad a largas distancias con uno 6 dos 
caballos ; y por ultimo, que son mas baratas, circunstan- 
cia que tampoco es indiferente, atendida la proverbial po- 
breza de nuestros agricul tores. La trilladora Pitts a que he 
hecho referenda, costaba en la fabrica de Buffalo con sus 
repuestos, 320 pesos fuertes ; el flete, comisiones etc., 
hicieron elevar esta cifra a 15,000 ps. m/c, y no obstante 
que los derechos fueron liberalmente dispensados por el 
Gobierno National, al llegar a Campana hubo que aumen- 
tar toda via unos 4,000 pesos mas, que con escasa dife- 
rericia triplicaron el costo primitivo. 

La lamina num. 1 2 da una idea de esta maquina, cuya 
estructura es realmente orijinal. Sobre la pequena plata- 
forma que esta en la parte de adelante, se para el hombre 
que recibe el trigo suelto 6 en ga villas, siendo, como hemos 
yisto, esto ultimo mil veces preferible. En las maquina# 



— 76 — 



inglesas el obrero que recibe el trigo esta arriba de la md- 
quina k considerable elevation, lo que hace mas dificil 
alcanzarselo. El cilindro desgranador jirando con estraor- 
dinaria velocidad de 1,200 k 1,300 revoluciones por minu- 
to, fuerza el trigo a pasar entre unas puas, que pueden 
corapararse a las de los desgranadores de maiz, si bien 
mucho mas pronunciadas ; y que estan calculadas para 
que solo quede entre unas y otras el espacio necesario, y 
que puede graduarse segun la calidad del grano. Desecha 
la espiga en esta operation, cae el grano mezclado con la 
paja, que tambien ha sido un tanto despedazada, a una faja 
de lonadel ancho del cajon de la maquina, que gira sobre 
unas pequenas poleas colocadas de trecho en trecho a lo 
largo de la maquina. Esta faja 6 lona, tiene pegadas 
fuertemente a lo ancho unas pequenas tablas a una dis- 
tancia de una pulgada una de otra. El grano, y las 
granzas caen dentro de las cavidades que dejan en- 
tre si estas pequenas tablas, y al llegar a la altura 
del ventilador donde la tela sin fin concluye, caen por 
su propio peso sobre una zaranda, recibiendo al caer 
una poderosa corriente de aire que se lleva la paja 
menuda. Despues de pasar por una zaranda, igual k la 
que vemos en los ventilador es 6 limpiadores ordinarios, el 
trigo sale ya perfectamente limpio por un agujero que 
se advierfce por entre los rayos de la rueda, y cae a la 
bolsa, que puede ya mandarse al mercado 6 al molino. 

La paja que no ha sido bastante desmenuzada, y es casi 
toda, pasa de la faja sin fin, ya descrita, a otra mas pe- 
quena, que la arroja por la parte mas elevada. Esta paja 
se aglomera con grande rapidez, y es indispensable reti- 
rarla, porque sino entorpeceria el juego de la zaranda y 
del ventilador. Es este el trabajo mas penoso ; pues la 
paja sale con mucha fuerza, y los trabajadores necesitan 



- 77 - 



algunas veces cubrirse la cara con un panuelo fino 6 un 
lino. Este inconveniente se salvaria con el elevador que 
lleva la paja a una gran distancia y puede emparvarla, si 
se quiere ; 6 bien, arrastrando los montones de paja con 
un caballo a la manera en que se llevan los de alfalfa 
para hacer-la parva. 

Dire al terminar con respecto a estas maquinas lo que 
decia relativamente a las de construction inglesa. Si los 
senores Brayley, sucesores de Pitts, tuviesen un deposito 
en esta ciudad, abririan un mercado muy importante para 
los productos de su gran fabrica de Buffallo. 



MAQUINAS DE VAPOR AMBULANTES 




Su introduccion — Su mecanismo — Gastos de car- 
bon — Idem de agua — Su precio — Idem de las 
trilladoras y elevadores. 

Hemos visto que la falta de buenos caballos de tiro 
hace preferible entre nosotros el uso de las m&quinas de 
vapor, que deben asi considerar como una parte integrante 
de las de trillar, y merecen por consiguiente, un estudio 
especial. 

Es esta maquina una invencion moderna— Recien en la 
Exposicion Universal de 1 851 llamo definitivamente la aten- 
cion, apareciendo en la forma que ha conservado hasta aho- 
ra,y que puede llamarse cl&sica, L. 1 3. — Desde entonces se 
ha hecho general, y se construye por millares. Solo los 
grandes talleres de Clayton y Shuttleworth, cuyo modelo 
ha sido adoptado por todos, €oncluyen y espenden una 
vor dia. 

Ransomes Sims y Head; Ruston, Proetor y C a ; Robey y 




«I° 13 

MAQUINA DE VAPOR AMBULANTE 
6 LOCOMOBIL 



— 79 — 



C a , Marshall, Garret, Howard, Horusby etc »v etc.; eoristrue- 
tores no m^nos importantes y afamados, — se empenan a 
porfia en mejorar este precioso instrumento de trabajo, que 
es hoy tan perfecto en todos sus detalles, corno las maqui- 
nas fijas. Todo esta previsto y perfectamente calculado. 
Su mecanismo se ha simplificado a terminos de que cual- 
quier obrero medianamente inteligente en un par de horas 
lo comprende y puede dirijirlo. 

El peligro de esplosion es tanremoto, que puede conside- 
rarse poco menos que imposible, no solo por el empleo de 
los mejores materiales, y la prueba a que han sido sujetadas 
las calderas, sometie'ndolas a una presion tres veces mayor 
que las que estan destinadas a sufrir en su trabajo ordina- 
rio, — sin6 por la mas perfecta combinacion de valvulas 
de seguridad, una de las que esta bajo Have, para ponerla a 
cubierto de la imprevision 6 imprudencia del conductor. 

Como en toda maquina de vapor, hay que distinguir en la 
locomobil, la caldera y el mecanismo propiamente dicho. 

La caldera generatriz del vapor, es del sistema tubular, 
pues importa que tenga el menor volumen posible. 

Consiste en un gran cilindro de planchas de fierro, hueco 
en el centro. En este centro hueco esta la hornalla. 
Al llegar el humo y la llama a la recamara que forma el fon- 
do del cilindro, vuelven por unos tubos que estan dentro del 
cilindro, y por consiguiente dentro del agua, y antes de salir 
por la chimenea que se ve encima de la hornalla, dejan rnu- 
cha parte de su calor, que se aprovecha de esta manera. 

El mecanismo motor esta colocado encima de la calde- 
ra, y consiste en un cilindro en el que la accion del 
vapor pone en movimiento un piston, que mueve a su vez la 
rueda a la que se fija la correa destinada a comunicar su 
impulso a la maquina que se quiere hacer trabajar, ya sea 
de trillar, ya de acerrar madera, ya de hacer ladrillos etc. etc. 



9 



— 80 — 



La bomba que alimenta lacaldera, segun el ultimo siste- 
ma, hoy adoptado por todos, hace la alimentacion automa- 
ticamente, y k medida que el agiia se va consumiendo por la 
salidadel yapor — Basta que por medio de un tubo de goma 
eMstica se la ponga en comunicacion con el dep6sito del 
agua. 

A mas de estos organos esenciales, hay varias otras peque- 
nas e" ingeniosas combinaciones que sirven para arreglar el 
movimiento de la maquina, para indiear el nivel de agua 
en la caldera, y hasta para avisar al conductor por un sil- 
vido agudo y prolongado que hay necesidad de alimentarla. 
Esto ultimo es hoy innecesario por el nuevo sistema de 
alimentacion continua & que he hecho referenda. 

Cuando la maquina anda con demasiada velocidad, los 
globos de fierro del regulador, que, ligadas por un sis- 
tema sencillo de engrenage a los organos principales, par- 
ticipan del movimiento general, se abren 6 se apartan, obe- 
deciendo a la fuerza centrifuga, y cerrando la valvu- 
la por donde entra el vapor al cilindro, moderan el 
impulso de la maquina, que, sin este freno, presentaria el es- 
pect&culo de un caballo desbocado, siempre que faltara la 
resistencia que encuentra en su trabajo ordinario, 6 se pro- 
dujera demasiado vapor en la caldera. 

Calculase que hay mas de 20,000 de estas maquinas lo- 
comobiles en actividad. Su uso se hace cada dia mas y mas 
general, y puede decirse que es hoy tan indispensable en una 
esplotacion agricola de mediana importancia, como la ma- 
quina de segar y la de trillar. Esto solo prueba que no es di- 
ficil manejarlas. La guerra del Paraguay fue' entre nosotros 
una grande escuela de maquinistas, que no tienen hoy ocu- 
pacion, y se felicitarian de que los labradores utilizaran sus 
servicios. Los fabricantes dan siempre con la maquina pro- 
lijas instrucciones impresas, que facilitan mucho su manejo. 



— 81 — 



En la ultima exposition de Paris se presentaron mas de 
cien de estas maquinas. — Sometidas a" un estudio se>io para 
apreciar el combustible quegastaban, se obtuvo el resultado 
siguiente: 



Constructores. Fuerza delamdquina. Consumo por hora por 

cada caballo. 



Ramtomes, Sims & Head 10 caballos 1 kilog. 631 



Marshall 


8 


id 


3 


id 


171 


Girard 


6 


id 




id 


174 


Allen, etc., etc. . . 


, 6 


id 


3 


id 


360 



Y^se asi que el consumo de carbon varia entre 4 y 6 li- 
bras por la fuerza de cada caballo por hora. Es decir que 
una maquina dela fuerza de 6 caballos, por ej., tomando 
el termmo medio, consumiria 30 libras de carbon por hora, 
6 sea 300 en un dia de 1 0 horas de trabajo. — Calculando en 
900 pesos el precio de una tonelada de carbon en cualquier 
punto de la campana no muy distante de los ferro-carriles, 
estas 300 libras representaran 150 pesos. Si en vez de car- 
bon de piedra se quema lena, se necesitara doble peso, esto 
es, 600 libras al dia. Se hapretendido que estas maquinas 
trabajan solo con la paja del trigo. No me pareee posible 
que sin un combustible mas fuerte pueda mantenerse la 
presion necesaria. Pienso si que lo que se llama lefia de 
ovejas, que hoy abunda tanto, puede suplir muy bien el 
carbon. 

El agua que la maquina evapora es considerable, y pue- 
de estimarse en algunos barriles por dia, cuyo trasporte 
exigira la ocupacion de un hombre, si no estuviese cerca. 

En todos los catalogos que tengo a la vista y son mu- 



— 82 — 

chos, el precio de estas maquinas, es invariablemente el 
mis mo : 

De un cilindro y 4 cab. de f za... £ 150 6seam/c 18375 



« 


« 


5 


« 


« 


« 


165 


« 


20212 


« 


« 


6 




« 


« 


180 


« 


22050 


« 


« 


7 


« 


« 


« 


195 


« 


23887 


« 


« 


8 


« 


« 


« 


210 




25725 






9 


« 


« 


« 


230 




28175 






10 


« 


« 


« 


240 


« 


29400 




« 


12 


« 


« 




m 




33075 



TRILLAD ORAS. 

Para una maquina de 4 cab < . . £ 80 6 sea m/c 9800 

« « 5 « « 95 « 11637 

« « 7 « « 105 « 12862 

« « 10 « « 115 « 13087 



ELEV ADORES. 

Para subir la paja a 25 pi^s y en 

cualquier direccion £ 42 6 sea m/c 51 45 

Segun he dicho antes estos precios, con fletes, comisio- 
nes etc., etc., deben aumentarse en un 50 6 un 60 %, para 
no hacer calculos que puedan resultar fallidos. 

Creo que la maquina que mas conviene a nuestro pais es 
la de 6 caballos. — Con ella se hara muy probablemente el 
mismo trabajo que con una de 12.., y no solo el gasto 
sera menor, sino tambien el inconveniente que ofrece siem- 
pre el trasporte de masas de un peso considerable. 



Los Sres. Tomkinson y Jones de Montevideo, agentes de 
Ruston, Procton y O, vendieron por 1,600 #bol., 40,000 
$ m/c. al Sr. D. Miguel Argiiello una preciosa maquina de 
fuerza de 6 caballos con su trilladora correspondiente, que 
se exhibia en los campos del Rio 2°. — Introducida para la 
Exposicion, no habia pagado derechos, ni gastos de tras- 
porte. — Creo que por la misma suma, y mas bien, por 
algo mas, para no equivocarse, se tendra una maquina 
igual en esta ciudad. 



ARADOS 



Su invencion — Su progreso — Su importancia como 
base del cultivo — Jefferson y Webster — Condi- 
ciones desfavorables en que se hacia el ensayo — 
Arados Americanos — Sulky gang plough y prai- 
sie gang plough, 6 arados de pradera multiples — 
Ventajas que ofrecen para nuestro pais. 

El dia 17 tuvo lugar el ensayo de los arados. 

La esposicion en esta parte era numerosa 6 intjresante. 
Veianse alinados en una larga fila, arados Ingleses de los 
mas perfeccionados y de los mas acreditados fabricantes, — 
de una, de dos y hasta de 3 rejas, es decir, para hacer 
uno, dos y tres surcos k la vez. La America estaba 
tambien bien representada, desde los modelos mas peque- 
nos y baratos, hasta los magnificos de Collins de acero 
brunido y reluciente como un espejo. 

El arado es el primero entre todos los instrumentos 
agricolas. Su invencion valio a Triptolemo, a quien se 
atribuye, ser colocado entre el numero de los dioses de los 
tiempos mitologicos. 

El progreso del arado ha debido ser lento. La lamina 
1 4 da una idea de la escala que ha debido recorrer su 




AradoNormando- 




ARADO A VAPOR. 



— 85 — 

perfeccionamiento, desde su forma primitiva, que fa& pro- 
bablemente la rama de algun arbol, hasta los poderosos 
instrumentos que pone en movimiento el vapor. En la 
ultima esposicion de Paris se presento una coleccion 
de arados desde la mas remota antigiiedad hasta nues- 
tros dias, que merecio ser premiada, y que debia ser ver- 
daderamente orijinal. 

Ningun instrumento ha escitado tanto la inventiva del 
hombre, — desde el peon que lo maneja, hasta las inteli- 
gencias mas esclarecidas. 

Jefferson, tercer Presidente de los Estados Unidos, con 
la misma mano con que trazo el acta de la Independencia 
de esta gran Nacion, que con justicia podria llamarse, 
la pajina mas gloriosa de la humanidad, — dirigio en 1793 
una memoria al Instituto de Francia, fijando reglas mate- 
maticas para la construccion de la volcadera. Asi tam- 
bien Pascal no desdeno descender de las sublimes con- 
templaciones de Port-Royal a darnos la humilde carretilla 
de mano, que le debe la forma que hasta hoy conserva. 

Daniel Webster, el grande orador de los tiempos mo- 
dernos, en 1836, hizo construir un arado de suinvencion 
para abrir un surco de I i pulgadas de profundidad y 24 de 
ancho, que se ve todavia en la chacra de su amigo P. Har- 
vey. El mismo en su lenguaje enerjico y acentuado nos da 
cuenta de su ensayo. « Cuando empmie la mansera de mi 
grande arado (big plough ), tirado por cuatro yuntas de bue- 
yes, dice el celebre estadista, yoi como crujian las raices, y 
vi como desaparecian los troncos en las profundidades del 
surco, y observe como la superficie quedaba deshecha y 
unida, — senti mayor satisfaction por mi obra, que la que 
nunca me fue dado experimental* en las grandes luchas 
parlamentarias de Whashington. » 

El genio Americano a imitacion de sus grandes hombres 



— 86 — 



no descansa. Calciilase que la oficina de Washington es- 
pide por dia una patente dirijida a mejorar con mas 6 
menos e^ito, ya la volcadera, ya el timon, ya la cuchi- 
Ua & a . En 1869 se solicitaron 255, — y se diria sin embar- 
go, que el arado Americano habia llegado a la perfeccion, 
considerado el trabajo a que es destinado I 

Y no sin razon se preocupan los hombres pensadores de 
mejorar el instrumento que es la base de todo buen 
cultivo . 

El arado que permitiera remover la tierra a una pulgada 
mas de profundidad, aumentaria en mucho la riqueza 
de una Nacion. 

El comisario de agricultura de los E. U., Horacio Grapon, 
calcula que por cada pulgada que se profundizara mas 
el cultivo, aumentarian en 150.000,000 de duros las cose- 
chas de la Union. 

El arado es a la vez el instrumento mas dificil de 
apreciar en una esposicion agricola. Al estimar sus ven- 
tajas 6 inconvenientes, no es posible dejar de valorar cui- 
dadosamente las condiciones del pais en que ha de usarse. 
A mas de la naturaleza del suelo, es preciso tener en 
cuenia los elementos de traccion, y la intelijencia de los 
hombres de que se puede disponer. El uso de los buenos 
arados supone buenos animales de traccion y labradores 
inteligentes, en una palabra, una agricultura. adelantada. 
Solo la Inglaterra, la Alemania, la Belgica, la Francia y 
los Estados Unidos usan arados perfeccionados, el resto 
del mundo, mas de la mitad, no ha podido salir todavia 
del arado primitivo, que vemos figurar entre los geroglificos 
de los monumentos del Ejipto. 

La introduction del arado Americano para nuestra agri- 
cultura, fu6 ya una gran mejora. Segun la juiciosa apre- 



ARADOS AMERICANOS 




CAST, CAST-STEEL PLOWS. 



— 87 — 



ciacion de Mr. Crapon, ella ha debido aumentar, nuestra 
production en algunos millones. 

El arado Americano responde suficientemente, por ahora, 
a las condiciones de nuestros cultivos, y considero may 
dificil que por mncho tiempo podamos abandonarlo para 
adoptar otro mejor. A un precio modico, que lo pone al 
alcance de todos, reune la ventaja de ser liviano y facil 
de manejar. Es bien notoria la manera como trabaja, 
casi la totalidad de nuestros agricultores. El que tiene 
bueyes bastantes y no se ye obligado a recurrir al reme- 
dio de amansar novillos, es may feliz. El ano que los 
bueyes encuentran algo que comer en el campo y no se 
mueren de hambre, es tambien exceptional y de felicitation. 
El hecho es que bueyes mantenidos con el pasto tierno 
d°l invierno, que de spues del trabajo se encierran en un 
corral' a recibir las heladas, con el barro hasta la rodi- 
11a las mas veces, no estan en situacion al dia siguiente 
de hacer grandes tareas. Dia a dia se van debilitando, 
y aunque hayan priacipiado en buen estado y solo tra- 
bajen medio dia, como generalmente se acostumbra, es 
infalible que Uegan postrados al fin de la jornada, si ha 
sido de regular importancia. No es facil que en mu- 
cho tiempo estas condiciones cambien ; esta todavia re- 
mota la epoca en que nuestros agricultores tengan pastos 
artificiales , forrajes secos y galpones para abrigo ; y 
mientras esto no suceda, no es posible, a mi juicio, que 
entren en el uso general, esos admirables instrumentos 
oratorios que remueven una masa considerable de tierra, 
pero que, sin contar con la intelijencia del que los maneja, 
exijen una poderosa fuerza de traction. 

No daba por esta razon grande importancia a la prueba 
a que iban a ser sometidos los numerosos instrumentos 
que se habian exhibido. La mayor parte eran inadecua- 



— 88 - 



dos para nuestra agricultura. Por otra parte, el ensayo 
se hacia bajo las condiciones mas desfavorables. Despues 
de una seca de 8 meses, la tierra estaba dura y compacta 
k terminos de no ser posible un trabajo regular. Si k esto 
se agrega la mas visible desigualdad en la habilidad de 
los que dirijian los arados, y en la fuerza y destreza de 
los caballos ; y por ultimo, que el trabajo exijido duraba 
apenas unos pocos minutos, se comprendera que no era 
facil hacer un juieio ni ami aproximado, con respecto al 
merito relativo de cada uno. Debo sin embargo decir que 
en el ensayo que se hizo en tierra que habia sido regada 
algun tiempo atras y que estaba bastante suelta, llamo 
justamente la atencion un arado Ingles llamado antifriccio- 
nal 6 sin friccion 6 roce. Es verdad que era manejado 
por un Irlandes que parecia acostumbrado a luehar en 
concursos, y que en cualquiera llevaria gran probabilidad 
de ganar el premio, aunque trabajara con el peor arado. 

Para que el concurso de estos instrumentos pudiera dar 
resultados practicos para nuestro pais, deberia, en mi opi- 
nion, circunscribirse a aquellos que, como antes he dicho, 
la generalidad de nuestros agricultores debera usar por 
mucho tiempo aun ; y estos mismos deberian dividirse en 
varias categorias. Gonvendria, por ejemplo, someter a una 
prueba seria, los arados de una misma marca, diremos 0 y 
D, que son los que mas generalmente se usan. Los agricul- 
tores ganarian mucho sabiendo cual daba vuelta mejor 
la tierra, cual profundizaba mas con el mismo tiro, y cual 
era de construccion mas solida, siendo este el punto debil 
en casi todos. 

Ensay&ronse &la vez otros dos arados que escitaron gran- 
de interns y son realmente dignos de un estudio especial ; el 
« Sulky gang phough» presentado por el Sr. Wheelright, 




GANG-PLOUGH — ARADO SOBRE RUED AS 



- 89 - 



del Rosario, y el < prairie gang plough », de Collins, por 
el Sr. Roldan de Buenos Aires. L. 14. 

Estos arados estan calculados para dos yuntas de bueyes 
6 caballos. Segun se ve el labrador los maneja desde un 
comodo asiento. Abren dos surcos de 8 pulgadas de profun- 
didad y 1 2 de ancho cadauno, y como al dar vuelta, una de 
las ruedas, que es un poeo mas alta que la otra, va por el 
terreno que ha preparado el mismo arado, el trabajo se 
hace con la mayor regularidad. >~o he tenido ocasion 
de juzgar practicamente de las ventajas de este arado, 
y no me atreveria a abrir un juieio deflnitivo a su respecto. 
Solo dire que el infertile del comisario de Agricultura de 
los E. U. antes citado, recomienda mucho su uso, que afir- 
ma ser cada dia mas general, especialmente en los Estados 
del Oeste. Calculase que hacen de 3 a 5 acres por dia, es 
decir, proximamente una de nuestras cuadras. Los in- 
formes que be podido adquirir de las pocas personas que 
lo ban ensayado entre nosotros, concuerdan con este da to. 
Su introduction seria entonces una gran mejora en nues- 
tros cultivos. 

Desgraciadamente su precio, 3500 pesos, es demasia- 
do alto , y no ha de permitir que se generalice por mucho 
fiempo. Si se tiene en cuenta, sin embargo, que para hacer 
una cuadra en un dia se necesita emplear por lo menos, i 6 
5 arados, que suponen 4 6 5 hombres y lo o 20 bueyes, 
mientras que con el gang plough, 6 arado multiple en 
cuestion, un hombre con 8 bueyes hace el mismo trabajo, — 
se advierte claramente que este ultimo ofrece una ventaja 
inmensa en el ahorro de salarios, y que, aun su ma- 
yor costo, esta compensado con la economia de 8 bueyes, 
cuyo valor es tanto 6 mayor. En un par de meses, el 
ahorro del sueldo y mantencion de cuatro peones, habra 
pagado el valor de este precioso instrument*). Djficil es, por 



otra parte, que nuestros paisanos se entiendan con los 
pesados arados Ingleses, que exijen mucha destreza y 
gran fuerza muscular ; pero no hay ninguno que no sepa 
picar una carreta, y esto es todo lo que se necesita para 
manejar el gang plough. 

Bajo todo respecto es, pues, muy digno de fijar la aten- 
cion de nuestros agricultores este precioso instrumento. 
Su introduccion podria ser de la mayor importancia para 
nuestro pais. La tierra se prepara mejor, a mayor pro- 
bidad y a menos costo. Escuso decir que la produccion 
y los beneficios del labrador aumentarian, y que aun las 
secas serian menos temidas y desastrosas. 



^ >.» ■ .*»* - a* st^saiLtfs s^, 

h B3» sr s^b^ci v \ SJr ■/ \ - /> ix^im 1 .'n* ^/tij«. 







